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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 151        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 152        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 154        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 155        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 156        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 157        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 158        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 159        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 160        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 161        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 162        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 165        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 169        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 171        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 173            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 174        ),
 175        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 177        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 179        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 180        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 181        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 183        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 184        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 185        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 186        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 187        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 188        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 189        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 191        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 192        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 195        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 196        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 197        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 198        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 199        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 200        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 201        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 202        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 204        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 205        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 206        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 207        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 208    }
 209
 210    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 211    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 212    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 213    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 214
 215    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 216    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 217    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 218
 219    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 220    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 221
 222    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 223    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 224
 225    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 226    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 227
 228    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 229    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 230
 231    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 232    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 233
 234    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 235    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 236
 237    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 238    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 239
 240    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 241    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 242
 243    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 244    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 245
 246    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 247    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 248
 249    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 250    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 251
 252    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 253    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 254
 255    # Whether join hints should be generated
 256    JOIN_HINTS = True
 257
 258    # Whether table hints should be generated
 259    TABLE_HINTS = True
 260
 261    # Whether query hints should be generated
 262    QUERY_HINTS = True
 263
 264    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 265    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 266
 267    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 268    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 269
 270    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 271    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 272
 273    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 274    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 275
 276    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 277    RETURNING_END = True
 278
 279    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 280    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 281
 282    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 283    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 284
 285    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 286    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 287
 288    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 289    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 290
 291    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 292    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 293    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 294    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 295
 296    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 297    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 298
 299    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 300    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 301
 302    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 303    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 304
 305    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 306    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 307
 308    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 309    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 310
 311    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 312    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 313
 314    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 315    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 316
 317    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 318    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 319
 320    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 321    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 322
 323    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 324    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 325
 326    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 327    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 328
 329    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 330    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 331
 332    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 333    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 334
 335    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 336    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 337
 338    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 339    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 340
 341    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 342    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 343
 344    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 345    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 346
 347    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 348    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 349
 350    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 351    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 352
 353    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 354    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 355
 356    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 357    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 358
 359    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 360    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 361
 362    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 363    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 364
 365    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 366    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 367
 368    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 369    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 370
 371    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 372    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 373    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 374
 375    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 376    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 377
 378    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 379    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 380
 381    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 382    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 383
 384    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 385    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 386
 387    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 388    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 389
 390    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 391    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 392
 393    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 394    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 395    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 396    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 397
 398    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 399    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 400
 401    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 402    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 403
 404    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 405    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 406
 407    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 408    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 409
 410    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 411    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 412
 413    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 414    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 415
 416    # The HEX function name
 417    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 418
 419    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 420    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 421
 422    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 423    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 424
 425    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 426    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 427
 428    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 429    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 430
 431    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 432    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 433
 434    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 435    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 436
 437    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 438    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 439
 440    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 441    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 442
 443    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 444    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 445
 446    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 447    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 448
 449    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 450    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 451    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 452    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 453    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 454
 455    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 456        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 457        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 458        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 459        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 460        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 461        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 462        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 463        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 464        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 465        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 466    }
 467
 468    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 469        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 470        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 471        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 472        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 473        "DAYS": "DAY",
 474        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 475        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 476        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 477        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 478    }
 479
 480    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 481        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 482        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 483        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 484        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 485            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 486            if e.args.get("windows")
 487            else ""
 488        ),
 489        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 490    }
 491
 492    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 493
 494    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 495
 496    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 497    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 498
 499    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 500        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 506        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 508        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 515        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 520        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 526        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 527        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 528        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 529        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 530        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 531        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 533        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 535        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 536        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 541        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 542        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 543        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 544        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 545        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 547        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 550        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 553        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 561        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 566        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 568        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 569        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 572        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 574        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 575        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 576        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 578        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 581        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 583        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 584        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 585        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 588    }
 589
 590    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 591    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 592
 593    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 594    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 595        exp.Command,
 596        exp.Create,
 597        exp.Describe,
 598        exp.Delete,
 599        exp.Drop,
 600        exp.From,
 601        exp.Insert,
 602        exp.Join,
 603        exp.MultitableInserts,
 604        exp.Select,
 605        exp.SetOperation,
 606        exp.Update,
 607        exp.Where,
 608        exp.With,
 609    )
 610
 611    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 612    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 613        exp.Binary,
 614        exp.SetOperation,
 615    )
 616
 617    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 618    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 619        exp.Column,
 620        exp.Literal,
 621        exp.Neg,
 622        exp.Paren,
 623    )
 624
 625    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 626        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 627        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 628        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 629        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 630    }
 631
 632    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 633    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 634
 635    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 636
 637    __slots__ = (
 638        "pretty",
 639        "identify",
 640        "normalize",
 641        "pad",
 642        "_indent",
 643        "normalize_functions",
 644        "unsupported_level",
 645        "max_unsupported",
 646        "leading_comma",
 647        "max_text_width",
 648        "comments",
 649        "dialect",
 650        "unsupported_messages",
 651        "_escaped_quote_end",
 652        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 653        "_next_name",
 654        "_identifier_start",
 655        "_identifier_end",
 656    )
 657
 658    def __init__(
 659        self,
 660        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 661        identify: str | bool = False,
 662        normalize: bool = False,
 663        pad: int = 2,
 664        indent: int = 2,
 665        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 666        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 667        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 668        leading_comma: bool = False,
 669        max_text_width: int = 80,
 670        comments: bool = True,
 671        dialect: DialectType = None,
 672    ):
 673        import sqlglot
 674        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 675
 676        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 677        self.identify = identify
 678        self.normalize = normalize
 679        self.pad = pad
 680        self._indent = indent
 681        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 682        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 683        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 684        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 685        self.comments = comments
 686        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 687
 688        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 689        self.normalize_functions = (
 690            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 691        )
 692
 693        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 694        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 695            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 696        )
 697        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 698
 699        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 700
 701        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 702        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 703
 704    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 705        """
 706        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 707
 708        Args:
 709            expression: The syntax tree.
 710            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 711                it is safer to copy.
 712
 713        Returns:
 714            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 715        """
 716        if copy:
 717            expression = expression.copy()
 718
 719        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 720
 721        self.unsupported_messages = []
 722        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 723
 724        if self.pretty:
 725            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 726
 727        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 728            return sql
 729
 730        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 731            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 732                logger.warning(msg)
 733        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 734            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 735
 736        return sql
 737
 738    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 739        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 740        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 741
 742        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 743            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 744
 745            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 746
 747        return expression
 748
 749    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 750        if (
 751            not expression.parent
 752            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 753            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 754        ):
 755            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 756
 757            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 758        return expression
 759
 760    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 761        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 762            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 763        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 764
 765    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 766        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 767
 768    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 769        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 770
 771    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 772        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 773        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 774        return comment
 775
 776    def maybe_comment(
 777        self,
 778        sql: str,
 779        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 780        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 781        separated: bool = False,
 782    ) -> str:
 783        comments = (
 784            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 785            if self.comments
 786            else None
 787        )
 788
 789        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 790            return sql
 791
 792        comments_sql = " ".join(
 793            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 794        )
 795
 796        if not comments_sql:
 797            return sql
 798
 799        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 800
 801        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 802            return (
 803                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 804                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 805                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 806            )
 807
 808        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 809
 810    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 811        this_sql = (
 812            self.sql(expression)
 813            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 814            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 815        )
 816        if not this_sql:
 817            return "()"
 818
 819        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 820        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 821
 822    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 823        original = self.identify
 824        self.identify = False
 825        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 826        self.identify = original
 827        return result
 828
 829    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 830        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 831            return name.upper()
 832        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 833            return name.lower()
 834        return name
 835
 836    def indent(
 837        self,
 838        sql: str,
 839        level: int = 0,
 840        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 841        skip_first: bool = False,
 842        skip_last: bool = False,
 843    ) -> str:
 844        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 845            return sql
 846
 847        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 848        lines = sql.split("\n")
 849
 850        return "\n".join(
 851            (
 852                line
 853                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 854                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 855            )
 856            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 857        )
 858
 859    def sql(
 860        self,
 861        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 862        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 863        comment: bool = True,
 864    ) -> str:
 865        if not expression:
 866            return ""
 867
 868        if isinstance(expression, str):
 869            return expression
 870
 871        if key:
 872            value = expression.args.get(key)
 873            if value:
 874                return self.sql(value)
 875            return ""
 876
 877        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 878
 879        if callable(transform):
 880            sql = transform(self, expression)
 881        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 882            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 883
 884            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 885                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 886            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 887                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 888            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 889                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 890            else:
 891                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 892        else:
 893            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 894
 895        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 896
 897    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 898        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 899        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 900        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 901
 902    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 903        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 904        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 905        options = expression.args.get("options")
 906        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 907        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 908        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 909        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 910        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 911
 912    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 913        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 914            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 915        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 916        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 917
 918    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 919        return ".".join(
 920            self.sql(part)
 921            for part in (
 922                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 923                expression.args.get("db"),
 924                expression.args.get("table"),
 925                expression.args.get("this"),
 926            )
 927            if part
 928        )
 929
 930    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 931        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 932
 933        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 934            join_mark = ""
 935            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 936
 937        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 938
 939    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 941        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 942        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 943        return f"{position}{this}"
 944
 945    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 946        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 947        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 948        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 949        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 950        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 951        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 952        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 953        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 954
 955        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 956            kind = ""
 957
 958        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 959
 960    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 962        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 963        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 964
 965    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 967        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 968            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 969        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 970            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 971        else:
 972            persisted = ""
 973        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 974
 975    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 976        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 977
 978    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 979        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 980            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 981        else:
 982            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 983
 984        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 985
 986    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 987        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 988    ) -> str:
 989        this = ""
 990        if expression.this is not None:
 991            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 992            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 993
 994        start = expression.args.get("start")
 995        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 996        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 997        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 998        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 999        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1000        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1001        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1002        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1003        cycle_sql = ""
1004
1005        if cycle is not None:
1006            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1007            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1008
1009        sequence_opts = ""
1010        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1011            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1012            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1013
1014        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1015        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1016
1017        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1018
1019    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1020        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1021    ) -> str:
1022        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1023        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1024        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1025
1026    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1027        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1028    ) -> str:
1029        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1030
1031    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1032        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1033
1034    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1035        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1036
1037    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1038        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1039        if desc is not None:
1040            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1041        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1042
1043    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1045        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1046        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1047        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1048        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1049        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1050        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1051        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1052
1053    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1054        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1055
1056    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1057        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1058        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1059        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1060        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1061
1062        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1063
1064        properties_sql = ""
1065        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1066            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1067        ):
1068            properties_sql = self.sql(
1069                exp.Properties(
1070                    expressions=[
1071                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1072                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1073                    ]
1074                )
1075            )
1076
1077            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1078                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1079            elif not self.pretty:
1080                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1081                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1082
1083        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1084        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1085
1086        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1087        if expression_sql:
1088            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1089
1090            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1091                postalias_props_sql = ""
1092                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1093                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1094                        exp.Properties(
1095                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1096                        ),
1097                        wrapped=False,
1098                    )
1099                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1100                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1101
1102        postindex_props_sql = ""
1103        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1104            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1105                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1106                wrapped=False,
1107                prefix=" ",
1108            )
1109
1110        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1111        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1112        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1113
1114        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1115        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1116        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1117
1118        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1119        if clustered is None:
1120            clustered_sql = ""
1121        elif clustered:
1122            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1123        else:
1124            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1125
1126        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1127        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1128            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1129                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1130                sep=" ",
1131                prefix=" ",
1132                wrapped=False,
1133            )
1134
1135        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1136
1137        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1138        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1139            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1140                exp.Properties(
1141                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1142                ),
1143                sep=" ",
1144                prefix=" ",
1145                wrapped=False,
1146            )
1147
1148        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1149        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1150        no_schema_binding = (
1151            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1152        )
1153
1154        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1155        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1156
1157        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1158        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1159
1160    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1161        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1162        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1163        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1164        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1165        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1166        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1167        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1168        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1169        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1170        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1171
1172        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1173        if cache is None:
1174            cache_str = ""
1175        elif cache is True:
1176            cache_str = " CACHE"
1177        else:
1178            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1179
1180        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1181        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1182
1183        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1184
1185    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1187        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1188        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1189        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1190
1191    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1192        style = expression.args.get("style")
1193        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1194        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1195        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1196        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1197
1198    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1199        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1200        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1201
1202    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1203        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1204        if with_:
1205            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1206        return sql
1207
1208    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1209        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1210        recursive = (
1211            "RECURSIVE "
1212            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1213            else ""
1214        )
1215
1216        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1217
1218    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1219        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1220        if alias:
1221            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1222
1223        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1224
1225        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1226        if materialized is False:
1227            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1228        elif materialized:
1229            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1230
1231        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1232
1233    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1234        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1235        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1236        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1237
1238        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1239            columns = ""
1240            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1241
1242        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1243            alias = self._next_name()
1244
1245        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1246
1247    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1249        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1250            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1251        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1252
1253    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1254        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1256            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1257        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1258
1259    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1261        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1262            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1263        return this
1264
1265    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1268
1269        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1270            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1271            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1272        else:
1273            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1274            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1275
1276        if escape:
1277            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1278            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1279        else:
1280            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1281            escape_sql = ""
1282
1283        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1284            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1285
1286        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1287
1288    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1289        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1290        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1291
1292    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1294        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1295        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1296        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1297
1298    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1299        nested = ""
1300        values = ""
1301        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1302
1303        type_value = expression.this
1304        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1305            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1306        else:
1307            type_sql = (
1308                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1309                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1310                else type_value
1311            )
1312
1313        if interior:
1314            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1315                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1316                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1317                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1318                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1319                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1320            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1321                nested = f" {interior}"
1322            else:
1323                nested = f"({interior})"
1324
1325        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1326        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1327            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1328            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1329        ):
1330            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1331
1332        return type_sql
1333
1334    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1335        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1336        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1337        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1338        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1339
1340    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1342        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1343        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1344        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1345        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1346        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1347        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1348        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1349        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1350        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1351        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1352        if self.RETURNING_END:
1353            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1354        else:
1355            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1356        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1357
1358    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1360        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1361        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1362        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1363        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1364        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1365        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1366        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1367        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1368        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1369        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1370        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1371        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1372        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1373        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1374
1375    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1376        op_type = type(expression)
1377        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1378
1379        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1380        if (
1381            distinct is False
1382            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1383            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1384        ):
1385            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1386
1387        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1388
1389        if distinct is None:
1390            distinct = default_distinct
1391            if distinct is None:
1392                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1393
1394        if distinct is default_distinct:
1395            kind = ""
1396        else:
1397            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1398
1399        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1400        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1401
1402    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1403        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1404            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1405            order = expression.args.get("order")
1406
1407            if limit or order:
1408                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1409                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1410                )
1411
1412                if limit:
1413                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1414                if order:
1415                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1416                return self.sql(select)
1417
1418        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1419        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1420
1421        while stack:
1422            node = stack.pop()
1423
1424            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1425                stack.append(node.expression)
1426                stack.append(
1427                    self.maybe_comment(
1428                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1429                    )
1430                )
1431                stack.append(node.this)
1432            else:
1433                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1434
1435        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1436        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1437        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1438
1439    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1440        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1441        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1442        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1443        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1444        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1445            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1446        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1447        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1448
1449    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1450        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1451            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1452            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1453            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1454
1455        agg = expression.this
1456        agg_arg = agg.this
1457        cond = expression.expression.this
1458        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1459        return self.sql(agg)
1460
1461    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1462        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1463            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1464            return ""
1465
1466        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1467
1468    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1469        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1470        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1471        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1472        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1473        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1474        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1475        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1476        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1477        if include:
1478            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1479        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1480        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1481        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1482        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1483        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1484        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1485
1486        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1487
1488    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1489        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1490        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1491        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1492        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1493        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1494        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1495        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1496
1497        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1498
1499        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1500        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1501
1502    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1503        text = expression.name
1504        lower = text.lower()
1505        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1506        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1507        if (
1508            expression.quoted
1509            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1510            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1511            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1512        ):
1513            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1514        return text
1515
1516    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1517        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1518        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1519            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1520
1521        return text
1522
1523    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1524        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1525        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1526            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1527        return text
1528
1529    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1530        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1531        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1532        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1533        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1534        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1535
1536    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1537        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1538        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1539
1540    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1541        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1542
1543    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1544        root_properties = []
1545        with_properties = []
1546
1547        for p in expression.expressions:
1548            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1549            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1550                with_properties.append(p)
1551            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1552                root_properties.append(p)
1553
1554        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1555        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1556
1557        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1558            with_props = " " + with_props
1559
1560        return root_props + with_props
1561
1562    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1563        if properties.expressions:
1564            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1565        return ""
1566
1567    def properties(
1568        self,
1569        properties: exp.Properties,
1570        prefix: str = "",
1571        sep: str = ", ",
1572        suffix: str = "",
1573        wrapped: bool = True,
1574    ) -> str:
1575        if properties.expressions:
1576            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1577            if expressions:
1578                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1579                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1580        return ""
1581
1582    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1583        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1584
1585    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1586        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1587        for p in properties.expressions:
1588            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1589            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1590                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1591            else:
1592                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1593
1594        return properties_locs
1595
1596    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1597        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1598            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1599        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1600
1601    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1602        property_cls = expression.__class__
1603        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1604            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1605
1606        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1607        if not property_name:
1608            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1609
1610        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1611
1612    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1613        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1614            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1615            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1616
1617            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1618            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1619                like = f"({like})"
1620
1621            return like
1622
1623        if expression.expressions:
1624            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1625
1626        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1627        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1628
1629    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1630        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1631        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1632        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1633
1634    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1635        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1636        local = expression.args.get("local")
1637        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1638        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1639        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1640        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1641        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1642
1643    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1644        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1645        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1646        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1647
1648    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1649        if expression.args.get("default"):
1650            property = "DEFAULT"
1651        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1652            property = "ON"
1653        else:
1654            property = "OFF"
1655        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1656
1657    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1658        if expression.args.get("no"):
1659            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1660        if expression.args.get("default"):
1661            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1662
1663        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1664        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1665
1666    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1667        default = expression.args.get("default")
1668        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1669        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1670        if default or minimum or maximum:
1671            if default:
1672                prop = "DEFAULT"
1673            elif minimum:
1674                prop = "MINIMUM"
1675            else:
1676                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1677            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1678        units = expression.args.get("units")
1679        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1680        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1681
1682    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1683        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1684        always = expression.args.get("always")
1685        default = expression.args.get("default")
1686        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1687        never = expression.args.get("never")
1688
1689        if autotemp is not None:
1690            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1691        elif always:
1692            prop = "ALWAYS"
1693        elif default:
1694            prop = "DEFAULT"
1695        elif manual:
1696            prop = "MANUAL"
1697        elif never:
1698            prop = "NEVER"
1699        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1700
1701    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1702        no = expression.args.get("no")
1703        no = " NO" if no else ""
1704        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1705        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1706        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1707        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1708        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1709
1710    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1711        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1712            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1713        if expression.this:
1714            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1715            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1716            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1717
1718        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1719        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1720        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1721
1722    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1723        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1724
1725        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1726        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1727            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1728        else:
1729            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1730
1731        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1732
1733    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1734        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1735        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1736        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1737        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1738        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1739        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1740        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1741
1742    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1743        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1744        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1745        statistics_sql = ""
1746        if statistics is not None:
1747            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1748        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1749
1750    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1752        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1753        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1754        data_consistency = (
1755            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1756        )
1757        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1758        retention_period = (
1759            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1760        )
1761
1762        if this:
1763            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1764        else:
1765            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1766
1767        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1768
1769        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1770
1771    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1772        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1773        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1774
1775        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1776            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1777        else:
1778            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1779
1780        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1781        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1782        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1783        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1784        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1785        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1786        if is_function:
1787            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1788        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1789
1790        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1791        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1792        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1793        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1794        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1795        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1796        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1797        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1798
1799        if self.RETURNING_END:
1800            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1801        else:
1802            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1803
1804        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1805        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1806        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1807        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1808
1809        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1810        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1811
1812        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1813        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1814
1815    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1816        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1817
1818    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1819        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1820        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1822        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1823        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1824
1825    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1826        return expression.name
1827
1828    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1829        return expression.name
1830
1831    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1832        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1833
1834        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1835        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1836
1837        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1838        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1839        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1840
1841        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1842        if expressions:
1843            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1844            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1845
1846        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1847
1848    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1849        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1850
1851    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1852        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1853        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1854        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1855        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1856        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1857        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1858        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1859        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1860        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1861        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1862        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1863        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1864        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1865
1866    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1867        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1868
1869    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1870        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1871        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1872        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1873        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1874
1875    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1877        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1878        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1879        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1880
1881    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1882        return ".".join(
1883            self.sql(part)
1884            for part in (
1885                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1886                expression.args.get("db"),
1887                expression.args.get("this"),
1888            )
1889            if part is not None
1890        )
1891
1892    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1893        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1894        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1895        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1896        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1897        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1898        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1899        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1900        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1901
1902        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1903        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1904            sample_pre_alias = sample
1905            sample_post_alias = ""
1906        else:
1907            sample_pre_alias = ""
1908            sample_post_alias = sample
1909
1910        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1911        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1912        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1913        joins = self.indent(
1914            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1915        )
1916        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1917
1918        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1919        if file_format:
1920            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1921            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1922            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1923
1924        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1925        if ordinality:
1926            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1927            alias = ""
1928
1929        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1930        if when:
1931            table = f"{table} {when}"
1932
1933        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1934        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1935
1936        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1937        if rows_from:
1938            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1939
1940        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1941
1942    def tablesample_sql(
1943        self,
1944        expression: exp.TableSample,
1945        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1946    ) -> str:
1947        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1948        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1949        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1950        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1951        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1952        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1953        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1954        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1955        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1956
1957        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1958        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1959            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1960
1961        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1962        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1963            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1964
1965        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1966        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1967            expr = f"({expr})"
1968
1969        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1970
1971    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1972        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1973
1974        if expression.this:
1975            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1976            if not expressions:
1977                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1978
1979            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1980            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1981            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1982            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1983            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1984
1985        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1986        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1987        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1988
1989        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1990
1991        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1992        if include_nulls is not None:
1993            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1994        else:
1995            nulls = ""
1996
1997        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1998        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1999        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
2000
2001    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2002        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2003        kind = expression.text("kind")
2004        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2005        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2006
2007    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2008        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2009
2010    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2012        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2013        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2014        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2015        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2016        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2017        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2018        if self.RETURNING_END:
2019            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2020        else:
2021            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2022        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2023        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2024
2025    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2026        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2027
2028        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2029        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2030            args = self.expressions(expression)
2031            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2032            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2033            values = (
2034                f"({values})"
2035                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2036                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2037                else values
2038            )
2039            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2040
2041        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2042        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2043        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2044
2045        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2046
2047        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2048            row = tup.expressions
2049
2050            if i == 0 and column_names:
2051                row = [
2052                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2053                ]
2054
2055            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2056
2057        if self.pretty:
2058            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2059            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2060            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2061            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2062            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2063
2064        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2065        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2066        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2067
2068    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2069        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2070
2071    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2072    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2073        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2074        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2075        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2076
2077    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2078        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2079
2080    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2081        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2082        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2083
2084    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2085        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2086        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2087
2088    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2089        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2090        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2091
2092    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2093        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2094        if group_by_all is True:
2095            modifier = " ALL"
2096        elif group_by_all is False:
2097            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2098        else:
2099            modifier = ""
2100
2101        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2102
2103        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2104        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2105        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2106
2107        groupings = csv(
2108            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2109            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2110            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2111            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2112            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2113        )
2114
2115        if (
2116            expression.expressions
2117            and groupings
2118            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2119        ):
2120            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2121
2122        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2123
2124    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2125        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2126        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2127
2128    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2129        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2130        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2131        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2132        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2133        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2134        return start + connect
2135
2136    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2137        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2138
2139    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2140        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2141            side = None
2142        else:
2143            side = expression.side
2144
2145        op_sql = " ".join(
2146            op
2147            for op in (
2148                expression.method,
2149                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2150                side,
2151                expression.kind,
2152                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2153            )
2154            if op
2155        )
2156        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2157        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2158        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2159        using = expression.args.get("using")
2160
2161        if not on_sql and using:
2162            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2163
2164        this = expression.this
2165        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2166
2167        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2168        if exprs:
2169            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2170
2171        if on_sql:
2172            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2173            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2174            if using:
2175                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2176            else:
2177                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2178        elif not op_sql:
2179            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2180                return f" {this_sql}"
2181
2182            return f", {this_sql}"
2183
2184        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2185            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2186
2187        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2188
2189    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2190        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2191        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2192        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2193
2194    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2195        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2196
2197        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2198        if cross_apply is True:
2199            op = "INNER JOIN "
2200        elif cross_apply is False:
2201            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2202        else:
2203            op = ""
2204
2205        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2206
2207    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2208        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2209
2210        if expression.args.get("view"):
2211            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2212            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2213            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2214            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2215            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2216            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2217
2218        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2219        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2220        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2221
2222    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2223        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2224
2225        args = [
2226            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2227            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2228            if e
2229        ]
2230
2231        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2232        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2233        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2234        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2235
2236        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2237
2238    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2240        value = expression.expression
2241        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2242        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2243        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2244        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2245
2246    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2247        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2248        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2250        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2251        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2252        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2253        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2254        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2255
2256    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2257        expressions = (
2258            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2259        )
2260        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2261        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2262
2263    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2264        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2265
2266    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2267        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2268            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2269            return ""
2270
2271        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2272        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2273        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2274        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2275
2276        if wait is not None:
2277            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2278                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2279            else:
2280                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2281
2282        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2283
2284    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2285        text = expression.this or ""
2286        if expression.is_string:
2287            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2288        return text
2289
2290    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2291        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2292            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2293            text = "".join(
2294                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2295            )
2296
2297        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2298            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2299        )
2300
2301    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2302        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2303        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2304        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2305        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2306        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2307        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2308        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2309        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2310        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2311        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2312        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2313
2314    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2315        return "NULL"
2316
2317    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2318        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2319
2320    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2322        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2323        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2324        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2325
2326    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2327        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2328        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2329        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2330        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2331        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2332        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2333        interpolated_values = [
2334            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2335            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2336            else self.sql(e, "this")
2337            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2338        ]
2339        interpolate = (
2340            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2341        )
2342        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2343
2344    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2345        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2346
2347    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2348        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2349
2350    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2351        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2352
2353    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2354        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2355        asc = not desc
2356
2357        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2358        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2359        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2360        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2361        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2362
2363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2364
2365        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2366        nulls_sort_change = ""
2367        if nulls_first and (
2368            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2369        ):
2370            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2371        elif (
2372            nulls_last
2373            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2374            and not nulls_are_last
2375        ):
2376            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2377
2378        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2379        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2380            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2381            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2382                self.unsupported(
2383                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2384                )
2385                nulls_sort_change = ""
2386            elif (
2387                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2388                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2389                and (
2390                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2391                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2392                )
2393            ):
2394                self.unsupported(
2395                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2396                )
2397                nulls_sort_change = ""
2398            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2399                if expression.this.is_int:
2400                    self.unsupported(
2401                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2402                    )
2403                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2404                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2405                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2406                nulls_sort_change = ""
2407
2408        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2409        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2410
2411        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2412
2413    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2414        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2415        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2416
2417        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2418
2419        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2420
2421    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2422        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2423        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2424        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2425        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2426        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2427        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2428        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2429        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2430        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2431        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2432        definition_sqls = [
2433            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2434            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2435        ]
2436        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2437        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2438        body = "".join(
2439            (
2440                partition,
2441                order,
2442                measures,
2443                rows,
2444                after,
2445                pattern,
2446                define,
2447            )
2448        )
2449        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2450        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2451        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2452
2453    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2454        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2455
2456        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2457            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2458        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2459            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2460
2461        return csv(
2462            *sqls,
2463            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2464            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2465            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2466            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2467            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2468            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2469            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2470            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2471            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2472            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2473            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2474            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2475            self.options_modifier(expression),
2476            sep="",
2477        )
2478
2479    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2480        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2481        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2482
2483    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2484        return ""
2485
2486    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2487        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2488    ) -> t.List[str]:
2489        return [
2490            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2491            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2492        ]
2493
2494    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2495        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2496        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2497        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2498
2499    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2500        into = expression.args.get("into")
2501        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2502            into.pop()
2503
2504        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2505        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2506        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2507        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2508
2509        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2510        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2511            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2512            limit.pop()
2513        else:
2514            top = ""
2515
2516        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2517
2518        if kind:
2519            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2520                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2521            else:
2522                if kind == "STRUCT":
2523                    expressions = self.expressions(
2524                        sqls=[
2525                            self.sql(
2526                                exp.Struct(
2527                                    expressions=[
2528                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2529                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2530                                        else e
2531                                        for e in expression.expressions
2532                                    ]
2533                                )
2534                            )
2535                        ]
2536                    )
2537                kind = ""
2538
2539        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2540        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2541
2542        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2543        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2544        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2545        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2546        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2547            expression,
2548            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2549            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2550            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2551        )
2552
2553        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2554        if expression.args.get("with"):
2555            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2556            expression.pop_comments()
2557
2558        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2559
2560        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2561            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2562                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2563            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2564                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2565            else:
2566                table_kind = ""
2567            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2568
2569        return sql
2570
2571    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2573        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2574        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2575
2576    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2577        if expression.expressions:
2578            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2579        return ""
2580
2581    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2582        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2583        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2584        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2585        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2586        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2587        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2588        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2589
2590    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2591        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2592        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2593
2594    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2596        kind = expression.text("kind")
2597        if kind:
2598            kind = f"{kind}."
2599        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2600
2601    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2602        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2603
2604    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2605        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2606        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2607        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2608        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2609            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2610
2611            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2612            expression.set("sample", None)
2613
2614        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2615        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2616        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2617
2618    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2619        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2620        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2621
2622    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2623        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2624
2625        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2626        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2627
2628        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2629            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2630                alias.append("columns", offset)
2631
2632        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2633            columns = alias.columns
2634            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2635        else:
2636            alias = self.sql(alias)
2637
2638        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2639        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2640            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2641        else:
2642            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2643                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2644            elif offset:
2645                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2646            else:
2647                suffix = alias
2648
2649        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2650
2651    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2652        return ""
2653
2654    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2655        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2656        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2657
2658    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2660        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2661        order = expression.args.get("order")
2662        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2663        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2664        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2665        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2666
2667        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2668
2669        first = expression.args.get("first")
2670        if first is None:
2671            first = ""
2672        else:
2673            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2674
2675        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2676            return f"{this} {alias}"
2677
2678        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2679        return f"{this} ({args})"
2680
2681    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2682        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2683        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2684
2685    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2686        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2687        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2688        end = (
2689            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2690            or "CURRENT ROW"
2691        )
2692        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2693
2694    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2696        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2697        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2698
2699    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2701        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2702        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2703        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2704
2705    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2706        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2707    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2708        return apply_index_offset(
2709            expression.this,
2710            expression.expressions,
2711            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2712        )
2713
2714    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2715        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2716        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2717        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2718
2719    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2720        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2721
2722    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2723        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2724        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2725            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2726                this = self.wrap(this)
2727            return f"ANY{this}"
2728        return f"ANY {this}"
2729
2730    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2731        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2732
2733    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2735        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2736
2737        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2738            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2739            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2740
2741        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2742
2743        if default:
2744            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2745
2746        statements.append("END")
2747
2748        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2749            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2750
2751        return " ".join(statements)
2752
2753    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2755        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2756        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2757
2758    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2759        order = expression.args.get("order")
2760        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2761        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2762
2763    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2765        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2766        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2767
2768    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2769        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2770
2771        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2772            func_name = "LTRIM"
2773        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2774            func_name = "RTRIM"
2775        else:
2776            func_name = "TRIM"
2777
2778        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2779
2780    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2781        args = expression.expressions
2782        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2783            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2784
2785        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2786            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2787
2788        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2789            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2790
2791        return args
2792
2793    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2794        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2795
2796        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2797        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2798            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2799
2800        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2801
2802    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2803        return self.func(
2804            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2805        )
2806
2807    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2808        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2809        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2810
2811    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2812        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2813        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2814        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2815        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2816        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2817        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2818        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2819        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2820
2821    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2822        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2823        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2824        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2825        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2826
2827    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2828        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2829
2830    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2831        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2832        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2833        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2834
2835    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2836        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2837
2838    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2839        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2840
2841        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2842            path = self.escape_str(path)
2843
2844        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2845            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2846
2847        return path
2848
2849    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2850        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2851            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2852            if not callable(transform):
2853                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2854                return ""
2855
2856            return transform(self, expression)
2857
2858        if isinstance(expression, int):
2859            return str(expression)
2860
2861        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2862            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2863            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2864        else:
2865            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2866            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2867
2868        return escaped
2869
2870    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2871        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2872
2873    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2874        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2875        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2876
2877        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2878        if unique_keys is not None:
2879            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2880        else:
2881            unique_keys = ""
2882
2883        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2884        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2885        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2886        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2887
2888        return self.func(
2889            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2890            *expression.expressions,
2891            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2892        )
2893
2894    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2895        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2896
2897    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2898        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2899        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2900        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2901        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2902        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2903        return self.func(
2904            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2905        )
2906
2907    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2909        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2910        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2911        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2912        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2913        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2914        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2915        return self.func(
2916            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2917            this,
2918            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2919        )
2920
2921    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2922        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2923        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2924        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2925
2926        if nested_schema:
2927            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2928
2929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2930        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2931        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2932        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2933
2934    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2935        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2936
2937    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2939        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2940        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2941        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2942        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2943        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2944        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2945        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2946        return self.func(
2947            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2948        )
2949
2950    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2952        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2953        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2954        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2955        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2956        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2957
2958    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2959        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2960        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2961        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2962        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2963        with_ = (
2964            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2965            if expressions
2966            else ""
2967        )
2968        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2969
2970    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2971        query = expression.args.get("query")
2972        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2973        field = expression.args.get("field")
2974        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2975
2976        if query:
2977            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2978        elif unnest:
2979            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2980        elif field:
2981            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2982        else:
2983            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2984
2985        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2986
2987    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2988        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2989
2990    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2991        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2992        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2993            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2994        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2995
2996        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2997            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2998            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2999
3000        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3001        if this:
3002            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3003            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3004
3005        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3006
3007    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3008        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3009
3010    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3012        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3013        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3014        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3015        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3016        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3017
3018    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3019        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3020        parent = expression.parent
3021        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3022        return self.func(
3023            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3024        )
3025
3026    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3027        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3028        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3029
3030    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3031        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3032        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3033        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3034        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3035
3036    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3037        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3038
3039    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3040        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3041        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3042        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3043
3044    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3045        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3046
3047        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3048        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3049
3050        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3051            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3052        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3053            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3054
3055        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3056
3057    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3058        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3059
3060    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3062        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3063        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3064
3065    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3067        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3068        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3069
3070    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3072        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3073        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3074
3075    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3076        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3077
3078    def and_sql(
3079        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3080    ) -> str:
3081        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3082
3083    def or_sql(
3084        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3085    ) -> str:
3086        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3087
3088    def xor_sql(
3089        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3090    ) -> str:
3091        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3092
3093    def connector_sql(
3094        self,
3095        expression: exp.Connector,
3096        op: str,
3097        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3098    ) -> str:
3099        if stack is not None:
3100            if expression.expressions:
3101                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3102            else:
3103                stack.append(expression.right)
3104                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3105                    for comment in expression.comments:
3106                        if comment:
3107                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3108                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3109            return op
3110
3111        stack = [expression]
3112        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3113        ops = set()
3114
3115        while stack:
3116            node = stack.pop()
3117            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3118                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3119            else:
3120                sql = self.sql(node)
3121                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3122                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3123                else:
3124                    sqls.append(sql)
3125
3126        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3127        return sep.join(sqls)
3128
3129    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3130        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3131
3132    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3133        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3134
3135    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3136        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3137
3138    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3139        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3140
3141    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3142        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3143
3144    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3145        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3146
3147    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3148        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3149        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3150        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3151        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3152        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3153        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3154        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3155
3156    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3157        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3158        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3159
3160    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3161        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3162            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3163        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3164
3165    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3166        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3167
3168    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3170        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3171        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3172        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3173        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3174        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3175
3176    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3178        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3179        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3180        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3181        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3182        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3183        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3184        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3185        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3186
3187    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3188        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3189        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3190        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3191        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3192
3193        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3194            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3195
3196        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3197
3198    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3199        return "BEGIN"
3200
3201    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3202        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3203        if chain is not None:
3204            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3205
3206        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3207
3208    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3209        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3210        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3211        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3212
3213    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3215
3216        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3217        if dtype:
3218            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3219            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3220            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3221            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3222            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3223
3224        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3225        if default:
3226            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3227
3228        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3229        if comment:
3230            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3231
3232        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3233        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3234
3235        if not drop and not allow_null:
3236            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3237
3238        if allow_null is not None:
3239            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3240            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3241
3242        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3243
3244    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3246        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3247            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3248        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3249
3250    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3251        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3253        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3254        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3255        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3256
3257    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3258        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3259            # Remove db from tables
3260            expression = expression.transform(
3261                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3262            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3264        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3265
3266    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3267        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3268        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3269        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3270        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3271
3272    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3273        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3274        return f"SET {exprs}"
3275
3276    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3277        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3278
3279        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3280            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3281        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3282            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3283        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3284            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3285        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3286            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3287        else:
3288            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3289
3290        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3291        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3292        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3293        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3294        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3295        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3296        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3297        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3298
3299        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3300
3301    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3302        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3303            return self.expressions(
3304                expression,
3305                key="actions",
3306                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3307                skip_first=True,
3308            )
3309        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3310
3311    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3312        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3313        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3314        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3315
3316    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3317        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3318
3319    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3320        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3321
3322        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3323            case = exp.case()
3324            for arg in expression.expressions:
3325                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3326            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3327
3328        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3329
3330        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3331        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3332        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3333
3334    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3335        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3336
3337    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3338        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3339
3340    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3341        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3342        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3343        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3344        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3345
3346    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3347        return self.sql(
3348            exp.Cast(
3349                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3350                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3351            )
3352        )
3353
3354    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3355        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3356            return self.func(
3357                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3358            )
3359        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3360
3361    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3362        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3363
3364        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3365            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3366
3367        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3368            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3369                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3370
3371        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3372            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3373                return self.sql(
3374                    exp.cast(
3375                        l / r,
3376                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3377                    )
3378                )
3379
3380        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3381
3382    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3383        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3384
3385    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3386        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3387
3388    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3389        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3390
3391    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3392        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3393
3394    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3395        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3396
3397    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3398        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3399
3400    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3401        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3402
3403    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3404        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3405
3406    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3407        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3408
3409    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3410        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3411
3412    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3413        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3414
3415    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3416        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3417            return self.sql(
3418                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3419            )
3420        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3421
3422    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3423        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3424
3425    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3426        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3427
3428    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3429        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3430
3431    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3432        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3433
3434    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3435        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3436
3437    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3438        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3439
3440    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3441        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3442
3443    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3444        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3445
3446    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3447        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3448
3449    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3450        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3451
3452    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3453        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3454
3455    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3456        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3457
3458    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3459        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3460
3461    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3462        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3463            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3464            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3465
3466        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3467
3468    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3469        this = expression.this
3470        expr = expression.expression
3471
3472        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3473            this, expr = expr, this
3474        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3475            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3476                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3477
3478            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3479
3480        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3481
3482    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3483        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3484        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3486        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3487        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3488
3489    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3490        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3491        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3492        binary_type = type(expression)
3493
3494        while stack:
3495            node = stack.pop()
3496
3497            if type(node) is binary_type:
3498                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3499                if op_func:
3500                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3501
3502                stack.append(node.right)
3503                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3504                stack.append(node.left)
3505            else:
3506                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3507
3508        return "".join(sqls)
3509
3510    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3511        args = []
3512
3513        for key in expression.arg_types:
3514            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3515
3516            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3517                for value in arg_value:
3518                    args.append(value)
3519            elif arg_value is not None:
3520                args.append(arg_value)
3521
3522        if self.normalize_functions:
3523            name = expression.sql_name()
3524        else:
3525            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3526
3527        return self.func(name, *args)
3528
3529    def func(
3530        self,
3531        name: str,
3532        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3533        prefix: str = "(",
3534        suffix: str = ")",
3535        normalize: bool = True,
3536    ) -> str:
3537        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3538        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3539
3540    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3541        arg_sqls = tuple(
3542            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3543        )
3544        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3545            return self.indent(
3546                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3547            )
3548        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3549
3550    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3551        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3552
3553    def format_time(
3554        self,
3555        expression: exp.Expression,
3556        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3557        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3558    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3559        return format_time(
3560            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3561            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3562            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3563        )
3564
3565    def expressions(
3566        self,
3567        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3568        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3569        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3570        flat: bool = False,
3571        indent: bool = True,
3572        skip_first: bool = False,
3573        skip_last: bool = False,
3574        sep: str = ", ",
3575        prefix: str = "",
3576        dynamic: bool = False,
3577        new_line: bool = False,
3578    ) -> str:
3579        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3580
3581        if not expressions:
3582            return ""
3583
3584        if flat:
3585            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3586
3587        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3588        result_sqls = []
3589
3590        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3591            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3592            if not sql:
3593                continue
3594
3595            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3596
3597            if self.pretty:
3598                if self.leading_comma:
3599                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3600                else:
3601                    result_sqls.append(
3602                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3603                    )
3604            else:
3605                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3606
3607        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3608            if new_line:
3609                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3610                result_sqls.append("")
3611            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3612        else:
3613            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3614
3615        return (
3616            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3617            if indent
3618            else result_sql
3619        )
3620
3621    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3622        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3623        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3624        if flat:
3625            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3626        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3627
3628    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3629        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3630        if not property_name:
3631            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3632        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3633
3634    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3635        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3636
3637    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3638        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3639
3640    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3642        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3643        expressions = (
3644            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3645        )
3646        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3647
3648    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3650        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3651        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3652
3653    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3654        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3655
3656    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3657        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3658        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3659        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3660        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3661
3662        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3663        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3664            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3665            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3666            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3667            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3668        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3669            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3670                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3671            else:
3672                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3673        else:
3674            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3675        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3676
3677    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3678        table = expression.this
3679        table_alias = ""
3680
3681        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3682        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3683            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3684            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3685
3686        this = self.sql(table)
3687        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3688        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3689        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3690        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3691        if returning:
3692            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3693
3694        sep = self.sep()
3695
3696        return self.prepend_ctes(
3697            expression,
3698            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3699        )
3700
3701    @unsupported_args("format")
3702    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3703        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3704
3705    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3706        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3707            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3708            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3709
3710        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3711        if not fmt:
3712            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3713            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3714
3715        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3716
3717    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3719        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3720        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3721        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3722        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3723
3724    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3726        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3727        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3728        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3729
3730    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3731        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3732
3733    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3734        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3735
3736    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3737    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3738        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3739        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3740        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3741        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3742        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3743        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3744        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3745
3746    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3747        return ""
3748
3749    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3751        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3752        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3753        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3754        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3755
3756    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3757        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3758        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3759
3760        if having:
3761            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3762
3763        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3764
3765    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3766        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3767        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3768        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3769        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3770        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3771        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3772        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3773        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3774        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3775        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3776        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3777        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3778        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3779
3780    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3781        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3782        if key_block_size:
3783            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3784
3785        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3786        if using:
3787            return f"USING {using}"
3788
3789        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3790        if parser:
3791            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3792
3793        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3794        if comment:
3795            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3796
3797        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3798        if visible is not None:
3799            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3800
3801        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3802        if engine_attr:
3803            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3804
3805        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3806        if secondary_engine_attr:
3807            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3808
3809        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3810        return ""
3811
3812    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3813        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3814        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3815
3816    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3817        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3818        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3820        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3821        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3822        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3823        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3824        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3825        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3826        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3827        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3828
3829    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3830        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3831            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3832
3833        case = exp.Case().when(
3834            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3835            expression.args["true"],
3836            copy=False,
3837        )
3838        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3839        if else_cond:
3840            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3841
3842        return self.sql(case)
3843
3844    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3846        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3847        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3848        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3849        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3850        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3851
3852    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3853        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3854
3855    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3856        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3857
3858    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3859        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3860        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3861        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3862        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3863        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3864        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3865
3866    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3868        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3869        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3870
3871    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3873        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3874        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3875
3876    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3877        arg = expression.this
3878        if not arg.type:
3879            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3880
3881            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3882
3883        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3884            return self.sql(arg)
3885
3886        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3887        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3888
3889    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3890        this = expression.this
3891        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3892            return self.sql(this)
3893
3894        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3895
3896    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3897        this = expression.this
3898        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3899            return self.sql(this)
3900
3901        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
3902
3903    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3904        this = expression.this
3905        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
3906            return self.sql(this)
3907
3908        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
3909
3910    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3911        this = expression.this
3912        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3913
3914        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3915            return self.sql(
3916                exp.cast(
3917                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3918                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3919                )
3920            )
3921
3922        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3923            return self.sql(this)
3924
3925        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3926
3927    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3928        return self.sql(
3929            exp.func(
3930                "DATEDIFF",
3931                expression.this,
3932                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3933                "day",
3934            )
3935        )
3936
3937    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3938        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3939            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3940
3941        unit = expression.text("unit")
3942        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3943            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3944
3945        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3946
3947    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3948        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3949
3950        return self.func(
3951            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3952        )
3953
3954    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3955        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3956            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3957            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3958            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3959            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3960
3961        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3962
3963        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3964        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3965            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3966
3967        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3968
3969    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3970        expression.set(
3971            "expressions",
3972            [
3973                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3974                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3975                else e
3976                for e in expression.expressions
3977            ],
3978        )
3979
3980        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3981
3982    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3983        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3984        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3985
3986        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3987
3988    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3989        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3990        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3991
3992        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3993
3994        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3995        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3996
3997        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3998        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3999
4000        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4001        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4002
4003        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4004        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4005
4006        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4007
4008    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4009    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4010    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4011        to = expression.this
4012        value = expression.expression
4013        style = expression.args.get("style")
4014        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4015        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4016
4017        if not to or not value:
4018            return ""
4019
4020        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4021        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4022            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4023
4024        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4025        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4026
4027        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4028        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4029            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4030
4031            style_value = style.name
4032            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4033            if not converted_style:
4034                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4035
4036            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4037
4038            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4039                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4040            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4041                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4042            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4043                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4044            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4045                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4046
4047        if not transformed:
4048            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4049
4050        return self.sql(transformed)
4051
4052    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4053        this = expression.this
4054        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4055            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4056            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4057
4058        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4059            return f".{this}"
4060
4061        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4062        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4063
4064    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4065        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4066        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4067
4068    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4069        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4070            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4071
4072            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4073
4074        return expression
4075
4076    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4077        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4078            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4079            mods = sorted(
4080                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4081                key=lambda x: 0
4082                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4083                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4084            )
4085
4086            if mods:
4087                mod = mods[0]
4088                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4089                this.meta["inline"] = True
4090                mod.this.replace(this)
4091                return self.sql(expression.this)
4092
4093            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4094
4095            if agg_func:
4096                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4097
4098        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4099
4100    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4101        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4102        if self.pretty:
4103            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4104        return string
4105
4106    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4107        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4108
4109        if expression.expressions:
4110            upper = option.upper()
4111
4112            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4113            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4114
4115            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4116            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4117            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4118            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4119
4120        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4121
4122        if not value:
4123            return option
4124
4125        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4126
4127        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4128
4129    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4130        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4131        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4132            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4133            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4134            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4135        else:
4136            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4137            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4138            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4139
4140        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4141        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4142
4143        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4144        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4145
4146        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4147        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4148
4149        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4150        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4151
4152        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4153
4154    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4156        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4157
4158        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4159        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4160        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4161        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4162
4163        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4164        params = self.expressions(
4165            expression,
4166            key="params",
4167            sep=sep,
4168            new_line=True,
4169            skip_last=True,
4170            skip_first=True,
4171            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4172        )
4173
4174        if params:
4175            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4176                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4177            elif not self.pretty:
4178                params = f" {params}"
4179
4180        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4181
4182    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4183        return ""
4184
4185    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4186        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4187        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4188        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4189        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4190        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4191
4192        if filter_col or retention_period:
4193            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4194
4195        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4196
4197    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4198        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4199    ) -> str:
4200        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4201        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4202        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4203        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4204
4205    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4207        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4208        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4209
4210    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4211        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4212
4213    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4215        expr = expression.expression
4216
4217        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4218            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4219            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4220        else:
4221            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4222
4223        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4224
4225    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4226        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4227            return self.sql(expression.this)
4228
4229        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4230
4231    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4232        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4233        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4234
4235        if lower and upper:
4236            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4237        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4238
4239    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4240        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4241        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4242        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4243        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4244        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4245        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4246
4247        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4248
4249    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4250        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4251
4252        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4253        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4254            fill_pattern = "' '"
4255
4256        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4257
4258    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4259        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4260        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4261
4262    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4263        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4264
4265        parent = expression.parent
4266        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4267            parent = parent.parent
4268
4269        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4270            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4271
4272        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4273            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4274
4275        return self.sql(generate_series)
4276
4277    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4278        exprs = expression.expressions
4279        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4280            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4281        else:
4282            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4283
4284        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4285
4286    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4287        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4288            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4289
4290        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4291        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4292        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4293
4294        if source_tz and timestamp:
4295            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4296                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4297            )
4298
4299        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4300
4301        return self.sql(expr)
4302
4303    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4304        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4305        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4306
4307        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4308
4309        if _with is None:
4310            with_sql = ""
4311        elif not _with:
4312            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4313        else:
4314            with_sql = " WITH"
4315
4316        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4317
4318        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4319
4320    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4321        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4322            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4323
4324        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4325        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4326        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4327
4328        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4329        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4330
4331        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4332
4333    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4334        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4335        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4336        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4337        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4338        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4339
4340    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4341        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4342        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4343        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4344        return res
4345
4346    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4347        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4348        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4349        empty = (
4350            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4351            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4352            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4353        )
4354
4355        error = expression.args.get("error")
4356        error = (
4357            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4358            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4359            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4360        )
4361
4362        if error and empty:
4363            error = (
4364                f"{empty} {error}"
4365                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4366                else f"{error} {empty}"
4367            )
4368            empty = ""
4369
4370        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4371
4372        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4373
4374    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4376        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4377
4378        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4379        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4380
4381        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4382        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4383
4384        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4385
4386        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4387
4388    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4389        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4390
4391        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4392        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4393        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4394            parent = expression.parent
4395            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4396                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4397                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4398            else:
4399                this = expression.this
4400                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4401                if this.find(exp.Column):
4402                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4403                    this_sql = (
4404                        self.expressions(this)
4405                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4406                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4407                    )
4408
4409                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4410
4411        return array_agg
4412
4413    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4415        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4416
4417        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4418
4419    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4420        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4421
4422        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4423        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4424
4425        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4426        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4427
4428        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4429
4430        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4431
4432        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4433
4434    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4436        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4437        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4438
4439        return f"{this}{columns}"
4440
4441    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4443
4444        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4445        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4446
4447        return f"{kind}{this}"
4448
4449    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4450        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4451        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4452            func = f"*{func}"
4453
4454        return func
4455
4456    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4457        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4458        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4459        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4460        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4461        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4462
4463        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4464
4465    @unsupported_args("format")
4466    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4467        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4468
4469    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4470        this = expression.this
4471        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4472
4473        if zone:
4474            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4475            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4476            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4477            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4478                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4479            )
4480
4481        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4482
4483    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4484        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4485            return self.sql(
4486                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4487            )
4488
4489        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4490
4491    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4492        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4493        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4494        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4495        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4496
4497    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4498        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4499            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4500
4501        start_ts = exp.cast(
4502            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4503        )
4504
4505        return self.sql(
4506            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4507        )
4508
4509    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4510        dim = expression.expression
4511
4512        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4513        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4514            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4515                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4516            dim = None
4517
4518        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4519        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4520            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4521
4522        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]:
30def unsupported_args(
31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
33    """
34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
36    """
37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
38    for arg in args:
39        if isinstance(arg, str):
40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
41        else:
42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
43
44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
45        @wraps(func)
46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
49
50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
54                    )
55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
56
57            return func(generator, expression)
58
59        return _func
60
61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an Expression subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator:
  75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  76    """
  77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  78
  79    Args:
  80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  81            Default: False.
  82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  84            True or 'always': Always quote.
  85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  87            Default: False.
  88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  90            Default: 2.
  91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  93            Default: 2.
  94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  97            False: Disables function name normalization.
  98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
 100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 102            Default: 3
 103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 105            Default: False
 106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 108            line length.
 109            Default: 80
 110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 111            Default: True
 112    """
 113
 114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 118        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 119        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 120        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 123        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 124        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 129        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 133        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 136        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 137        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 139        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 140        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 141        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 142        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 143        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 144        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 145        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 146        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 147        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 151        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 152        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 153        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 154        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 155        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 156        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 157        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 158        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 159        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 160        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 161        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 162        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 163        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 166        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 170        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 172        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 173        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 174            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 175        ),
 176        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 178        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 179        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 180        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 181        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 182        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 183        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 184        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 185        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 186        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 187        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 188        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 189        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 190        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 192        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 193        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 195        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 196        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 197        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 198        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 199        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 200        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 201        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 202        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 203        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 205        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 206        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 207        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 208        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 209    }
 210
 211    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 212    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 213    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 214    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 215
 216    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 217    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 218    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 219
 220    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 221    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 222
 223    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 224    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 225
 226    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 227    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 228
 229    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 230    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 231
 232    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 233    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 234
 235    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 236    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 237
 238    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 239    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 240
 241    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 242    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 243
 244    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 245    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 246
 247    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 248    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 249
 250    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 251    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 252
 253    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 254    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 255
 256    # Whether join hints should be generated
 257    JOIN_HINTS = True
 258
 259    # Whether table hints should be generated
 260    TABLE_HINTS = True
 261
 262    # Whether query hints should be generated
 263    QUERY_HINTS = True
 264
 265    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 266    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 267
 268    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 269    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 270
 271    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 272    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 273
 274    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 275    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 276
 277    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 278    RETURNING_END = True
 279
 280    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 281    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 282
 283    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 284    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 285
 286    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 287    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 288
 289    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 290    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 291
 292    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 293    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 294    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 295    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 296
 297    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 298    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 299
 300    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 301    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 302
 303    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 304    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 305
 306    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 307    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 308
 309    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 310    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 311
 312    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 313    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 314
 315    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 316    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 317
 318    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 319    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 320
 321    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 322    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 323
 324    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 325    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 326
 327    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 328    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 329
 330    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 331    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 332
 333    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 334    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 335
 336    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 337    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 338
 339    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 340    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 341
 342    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 343    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 344
 345    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 346    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 347
 348    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 349    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 350
 351    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 352    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 353
 354    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 355    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 356
 357    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 358    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 359
 360    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 361    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 362
 363    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 364    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 365
 366    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 367    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 368
 369    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 370    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 371
 372    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 373    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 374    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 375
 376    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 377    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 378
 379    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 380    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 381
 382    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 383    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 384
 385    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 386    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 387
 388    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 389    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 390
 391    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 392    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 393
 394    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 395    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 396    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 397    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 398
 399    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 400    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 401
 402    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 403    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 404
 405    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 406    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 407
 408    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 409    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 410
 411    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 412    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 413
 414    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 415    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 416
 417    # The HEX function name
 418    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 419
 420    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 421    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 422
 423    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 424    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 425
 426    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 427    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 428
 429    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 430    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 431
 432    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 433    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 434
 435    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 436    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 437
 438    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 439    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 440
 441    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 442    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 443
 444    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 445    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 446
 447    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 448    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 449
 450    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 451    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 452    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 453    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 454    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 455
 456    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 457        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 458        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 459        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 460        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 461        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 462        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 463        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 464        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 465        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 466        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 467    }
 468
 469    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 470        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 471        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 472        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 473        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 474        "DAYS": "DAY",
 475        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 476        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 477        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 478        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 479    }
 480
 481    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 482        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 483        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 484        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 485        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 486            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 487            if e.args.get("windows")
 488            else ""
 489        ),
 490        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 491    }
 492
 493    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 494
 495    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 496
 497    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 498    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 499
 500    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 501        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 503        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 507        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 509        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 516        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 518        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 521        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 527        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 528        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 529        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 530        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 531        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 532        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 534        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 536        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 537        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 542        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 543        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 544        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 545        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 546        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 548        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 551        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 554        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 562        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 567        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 569        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 570        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 572        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 573        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 575        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 576        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 577        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 578        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 579        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 581        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 582        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 583        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 584        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 585        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 586        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 588        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589    }
 590
 591    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 592    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 593
 594    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 595    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 596        exp.Command,
 597        exp.Create,
 598        exp.Describe,
 599        exp.Delete,
 600        exp.Drop,
 601        exp.From,
 602        exp.Insert,
 603        exp.Join,
 604        exp.MultitableInserts,
 605        exp.Select,
 606        exp.SetOperation,
 607        exp.Update,
 608        exp.Where,
 609        exp.With,
 610    )
 611
 612    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 613    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 614        exp.Binary,
 615        exp.SetOperation,
 616    )
 617
 618    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 619    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 620        exp.Column,
 621        exp.Literal,
 622        exp.Neg,
 623        exp.Paren,
 624    )
 625
 626    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 627        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 628        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 629        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 630        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 631    }
 632
 633    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 634    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 635
 636    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 637
 638    __slots__ = (
 639        "pretty",
 640        "identify",
 641        "normalize",
 642        "pad",
 643        "_indent",
 644        "normalize_functions",
 645        "unsupported_level",
 646        "max_unsupported",
 647        "leading_comma",
 648        "max_text_width",
 649        "comments",
 650        "dialect",
 651        "unsupported_messages",
 652        "_escaped_quote_end",
 653        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 654        "_next_name",
 655        "_identifier_start",
 656        "_identifier_end",
 657    )
 658
 659    def __init__(
 660        self,
 661        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 662        identify: str | bool = False,
 663        normalize: bool = False,
 664        pad: int = 2,
 665        indent: int = 2,
 666        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 667        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 668        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 669        leading_comma: bool = False,
 670        max_text_width: int = 80,
 671        comments: bool = True,
 672        dialect: DialectType = None,
 673    ):
 674        import sqlglot
 675        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 676
 677        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 678        self.identify = identify
 679        self.normalize = normalize
 680        self.pad = pad
 681        self._indent = indent
 682        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 683        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 684        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 685        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 686        self.comments = comments
 687        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 688
 689        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 690        self.normalize_functions = (
 691            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 692        )
 693
 694        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 695        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 696            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 697        )
 698        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 699
 700        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 701
 702        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 703        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 704
 705    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 706        """
 707        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 708
 709        Args:
 710            expression: The syntax tree.
 711            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 712                it is safer to copy.
 713
 714        Returns:
 715            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 716        """
 717        if copy:
 718            expression = expression.copy()
 719
 720        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 721
 722        self.unsupported_messages = []
 723        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 724
 725        if self.pretty:
 726            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 727
 728        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 729            return sql
 730
 731        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 732            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 733                logger.warning(msg)
 734        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 735            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 736
 737        return sql
 738
 739    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 740        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 741        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 742
 743        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 744            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 745
 746            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 747
 748        return expression
 749
 750    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 751        if (
 752            not expression.parent
 753            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 754            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 755        ):
 756            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 757
 758            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 759        return expression
 760
 761    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 762        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 763            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 764        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 765
 766    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 767        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 768
 769    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 770        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 771
 772    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 773        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 774        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 775        return comment
 776
 777    def maybe_comment(
 778        self,
 779        sql: str,
 780        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 781        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 782        separated: bool = False,
 783    ) -> str:
 784        comments = (
 785            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 786            if self.comments
 787            else None
 788        )
 789
 790        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 791            return sql
 792
 793        comments_sql = " ".join(
 794            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 795        )
 796
 797        if not comments_sql:
 798            return sql
 799
 800        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 801
 802        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 803            return (
 804                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 805                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 806                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 807            )
 808
 809        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 810
 811    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 812        this_sql = (
 813            self.sql(expression)
 814            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 815            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 816        )
 817        if not this_sql:
 818            return "()"
 819
 820        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 821        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 822
 823    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 824        original = self.identify
 825        self.identify = False
 826        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 827        self.identify = original
 828        return result
 829
 830    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 831        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 832            return name.upper()
 833        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 834            return name.lower()
 835        return name
 836
 837    def indent(
 838        self,
 839        sql: str,
 840        level: int = 0,
 841        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 842        skip_first: bool = False,
 843        skip_last: bool = False,
 844    ) -> str:
 845        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 846            return sql
 847
 848        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 849        lines = sql.split("\n")
 850
 851        return "\n".join(
 852            (
 853                line
 854                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 855                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 856            )
 857            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 858        )
 859
 860    def sql(
 861        self,
 862        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 863        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 864        comment: bool = True,
 865    ) -> str:
 866        if not expression:
 867            return ""
 868
 869        if isinstance(expression, str):
 870            return expression
 871
 872        if key:
 873            value = expression.args.get(key)
 874            if value:
 875                return self.sql(value)
 876            return ""
 877
 878        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 879
 880        if callable(transform):
 881            sql = transform(self, expression)
 882        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 883            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 884
 885            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 886                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 887            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 888                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 889            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 890                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 891            else:
 892                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 893        else:
 894            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 895
 896        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 897
 898    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 899        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 900        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 901        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 902
 903    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 904        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 905        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 906        options = expression.args.get("options")
 907        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 908        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 909        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 910        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 911        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 912
 913    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 914        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 915            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 916        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 917        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 918
 919    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 920        return ".".join(
 921            self.sql(part)
 922            for part in (
 923                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 924                expression.args.get("db"),
 925                expression.args.get("table"),
 926                expression.args.get("this"),
 927            )
 928            if part
 929        )
 930
 931    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 932        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 933
 934        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 935            join_mark = ""
 936            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 937
 938        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 939
 940    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 942        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 943        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 944        return f"{position}{this}"
 945
 946    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 947        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 948        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 949        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 950        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 951        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 952        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 953        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 954        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 955
 956        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 957            kind = ""
 958
 959        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 960
 961    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 963        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 964        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 965
 966    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 968        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 969            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 970        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 971            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 972        else:
 973            persisted = ""
 974        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 975
 976    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 977        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 978
 979    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 980        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 981            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 982        else:
 983            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 984
 985        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 986
 987    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 988        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 989    ) -> str:
 990        this = ""
 991        if expression.this is not None:
 992            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 993            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 994
 995        start = expression.args.get("start")
 996        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 997        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 998        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 999        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1000        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1001        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1002        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1003        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1004        cycle_sql = ""
1005
1006        if cycle is not None:
1007            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1008            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1009
1010        sequence_opts = ""
1011        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1012            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1013            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1014
1015        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1016        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1017
1018        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1019
1020    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1021        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1022    ) -> str:
1023        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1024        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1025        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1026
1027    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1028        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1029    ) -> str:
1030        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1031
1032    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1033        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1034
1035    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1036        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1037
1038    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1039        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1040        if desc is not None:
1041            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1042        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1043
1044    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1046        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1047        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1048        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1049        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1050        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1051        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1052        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1053
1054    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1055        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1056
1057    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1058        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1059        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1060        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1061        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1062
1063        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1064
1065        properties_sql = ""
1066        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1067            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1068        ):
1069            properties_sql = self.sql(
1070                exp.Properties(
1071                    expressions=[
1072                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1073                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1074                    ]
1075                )
1076            )
1077
1078            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1079                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1080            elif not self.pretty:
1081                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1082                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1083
1084        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1085        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1086
1087        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1088        if expression_sql:
1089            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1090
1091            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1092                postalias_props_sql = ""
1093                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1094                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1095                        exp.Properties(
1096                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1097                        ),
1098                        wrapped=False,
1099                    )
1100                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1101                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1102
1103        postindex_props_sql = ""
1104        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1105            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1106                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1107                wrapped=False,
1108                prefix=" ",
1109            )
1110
1111        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1112        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1113        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1114
1115        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1116        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1117        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1118
1119        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1120        if clustered is None:
1121            clustered_sql = ""
1122        elif clustered:
1123            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1124        else:
1125            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1126
1127        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1128        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1129            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1130                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1131                sep=" ",
1132                prefix=" ",
1133                wrapped=False,
1134            )
1135
1136        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1137
1138        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1139        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1140            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1141                exp.Properties(
1142                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1143                ),
1144                sep=" ",
1145                prefix=" ",
1146                wrapped=False,
1147            )
1148
1149        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1150        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1151        no_schema_binding = (
1152            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1153        )
1154
1155        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1156        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1157
1158        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1159        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1160
1161    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1162        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1163        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1164        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1165        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1166        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1167        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1168        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1169        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1170        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1171        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1172
1173        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1174        if cache is None:
1175            cache_str = ""
1176        elif cache is True:
1177            cache_str = " CACHE"
1178        else:
1179            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1180
1181        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1182        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1183
1184        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1185
1186    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1188        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1189        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1190        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1191
1192    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1193        style = expression.args.get("style")
1194        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1195        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1196        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1197        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1198
1199    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1200        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1201        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1202
1203    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1204        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1205        if with_:
1206            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1207        return sql
1208
1209    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1210        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1211        recursive = (
1212            "RECURSIVE "
1213            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1214            else ""
1215        )
1216
1217        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1218
1219    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1220        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1221        if alias:
1222            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1223
1224        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1225
1226        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1227        if materialized is False:
1228            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1229        elif materialized:
1230            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1231
1232        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1233
1234    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1235        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1236        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1237        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1238
1239        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1240            columns = ""
1241            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1242
1243        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1244            alias = self._next_name()
1245
1246        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1247
1248    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1250        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1251            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1252        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1253
1254    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1256        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1257            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1258        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1259
1260    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1262        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1263            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1264        return this
1265
1266    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1267        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1268        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1269
1270        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1271            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1272            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1273        else:
1274            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1275            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1276
1277        if escape:
1278            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1279            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1280        else:
1281            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1282            escape_sql = ""
1283
1284        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1285            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1286
1287        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1288
1289    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1290        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1291        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1292
1293    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1295        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1296        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1297        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1298
1299    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1300        nested = ""
1301        values = ""
1302        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1303
1304        type_value = expression.this
1305        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1306            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1307        else:
1308            type_sql = (
1309                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1310                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1311                else type_value
1312            )
1313
1314        if interior:
1315            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1316                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1317                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1318                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1319                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1320                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1321            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1322                nested = f" {interior}"
1323            else:
1324                nested = f"({interior})"
1325
1326        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1327        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1328            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1329            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1330        ):
1331            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1332
1333        return type_sql
1334
1335    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1336        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1337        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1338        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1339        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1340
1341    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1343        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1344        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1345        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1346        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1347        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1348        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1349        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1350        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1351        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1352        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1353        if self.RETURNING_END:
1354            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1355        else:
1356            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1357        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1358
1359    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1361        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1362        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1363        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1364        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1365        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1366        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1367        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1368        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1369        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1370        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1371        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1372        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1373        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1374        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1375
1376    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1377        op_type = type(expression)
1378        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1379
1380        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1381        if (
1382            distinct is False
1383            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1384            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1385        ):
1386            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1387
1388        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1389
1390        if distinct is None:
1391            distinct = default_distinct
1392            if distinct is None:
1393                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1394
1395        if distinct is default_distinct:
1396            kind = ""
1397        else:
1398            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1399
1400        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1401        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1402
1403    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1404        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1405            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1406            order = expression.args.get("order")
1407
1408            if limit or order:
1409                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1410                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1411                )
1412
1413                if limit:
1414                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1415                if order:
1416                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1417                return self.sql(select)
1418
1419        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1420        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1421
1422        while stack:
1423            node = stack.pop()
1424
1425            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1426                stack.append(node.expression)
1427                stack.append(
1428                    self.maybe_comment(
1429                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1430                    )
1431                )
1432                stack.append(node.this)
1433            else:
1434                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1435
1436        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1437        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1438        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1439
1440    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1441        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1442        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1443        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1444        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1445        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1446            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1447        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1448        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1449
1450    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1451        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1452            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1453            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1454            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1455
1456        agg = expression.this
1457        agg_arg = agg.this
1458        cond = expression.expression.this
1459        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1460        return self.sql(agg)
1461
1462    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1463        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1464            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1465            return ""
1466
1467        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1468
1469    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1470        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1471        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1472        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1473        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1474        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1475        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1476        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1477        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1478        if include:
1479            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1480        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1481        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1482        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1483        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1484        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1485        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1486
1487        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1488
1489    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1490        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1491        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1492        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1493        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1494        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1495        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1496        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1497
1498        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1499
1500        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1501        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1502
1503    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1504        text = expression.name
1505        lower = text.lower()
1506        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1507        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1508        if (
1509            expression.quoted
1510            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1511            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1512            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1513        ):
1514            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1515        return text
1516
1517    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1518        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1519        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1520            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1521
1522        return text
1523
1524    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1525        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1526        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1527            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1528        return text
1529
1530    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1531        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1532        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1533        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1534        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1535        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1536
1537    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1538        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1539        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1540
1541    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1542        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1543
1544    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1545        root_properties = []
1546        with_properties = []
1547
1548        for p in expression.expressions:
1549            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1550            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1551                with_properties.append(p)
1552            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1553                root_properties.append(p)
1554
1555        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1556        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1557
1558        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1559            with_props = " " + with_props
1560
1561        return root_props + with_props
1562
1563    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1564        if properties.expressions:
1565            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1566        return ""
1567
1568    def properties(
1569        self,
1570        properties: exp.Properties,
1571        prefix: str = "",
1572        sep: str = ", ",
1573        suffix: str = "",
1574        wrapped: bool = True,
1575    ) -> str:
1576        if properties.expressions:
1577            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1578            if expressions:
1579                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1580                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1581        return ""
1582
1583    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1584        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1585
1586    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1587        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1588        for p in properties.expressions:
1589            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1590            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1591                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1592            else:
1593                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1594
1595        return properties_locs
1596
1597    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1598        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1599            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1600        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1601
1602    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1603        property_cls = expression.__class__
1604        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1605            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1606
1607        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1608        if not property_name:
1609            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1610
1611        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1612
1613    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1614        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1615            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1616            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1617
1618            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1619            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1620                like = f"({like})"
1621
1622            return like
1623
1624        if expression.expressions:
1625            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1626
1627        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1628        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1629
1630    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1631        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1632        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1633        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1634
1635    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1636        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1637        local = expression.args.get("local")
1638        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1639        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1640        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1641        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1642        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1643
1644    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1645        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1646        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1647        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1648
1649    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1650        if expression.args.get("default"):
1651            property = "DEFAULT"
1652        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1653            property = "ON"
1654        else:
1655            property = "OFF"
1656        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1657
1658    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1659        if expression.args.get("no"):
1660            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1661        if expression.args.get("default"):
1662            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1663
1664        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1665        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1666
1667    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1668        default = expression.args.get("default")
1669        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1670        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1671        if default or minimum or maximum:
1672            if default:
1673                prop = "DEFAULT"
1674            elif minimum:
1675                prop = "MINIMUM"
1676            else:
1677                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1678            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1679        units = expression.args.get("units")
1680        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1681        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1682
1683    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1684        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1685        always = expression.args.get("always")
1686        default = expression.args.get("default")
1687        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1688        never = expression.args.get("never")
1689
1690        if autotemp is not None:
1691            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1692        elif always:
1693            prop = "ALWAYS"
1694        elif default:
1695            prop = "DEFAULT"
1696        elif manual:
1697            prop = "MANUAL"
1698        elif never:
1699            prop = "NEVER"
1700        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1701
1702    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1703        no = expression.args.get("no")
1704        no = " NO" if no else ""
1705        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1706        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1707        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1708        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1709        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1710
1711    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1712        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1713            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1714        if expression.this:
1715            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1716            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1717            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1718
1719        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1720        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1721        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1722
1723    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1725
1726        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1727        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1728            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1729        else:
1730            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1731
1732        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1733
1734    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1735        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1736        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1737        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1738        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1739        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1740        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1741        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1742
1743    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1744        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1745        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1746        statistics_sql = ""
1747        if statistics is not None:
1748            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1749        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1750
1751    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1752        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1753        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1754        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1755        data_consistency = (
1756            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1757        )
1758        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1759        retention_period = (
1760            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1761        )
1762
1763        if this:
1764            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1765        else:
1766            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1767
1768        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1769
1770        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1771
1772    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1773        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1774        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1775
1776        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1777            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1778        else:
1779            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1780
1781        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1782        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1783        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1784        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1785        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1786        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1787        if is_function:
1788            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1789        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1790
1791        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1792        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1793        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1794        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1795        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1796        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1797        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1798        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1799
1800        if self.RETURNING_END:
1801            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1802        else:
1803            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1804
1805        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1806        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1807        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1808        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1809
1810        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1811        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1812
1813        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1814        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1815
1816    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1817        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1818
1819    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1820        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1821        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1823        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1824        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1825
1826    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1827        return expression.name
1828
1829    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1830        return expression.name
1831
1832    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1833        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1834
1835        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1836        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1837
1838        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1839        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1840        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1841
1842        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1843        if expressions:
1844            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1845            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1846
1847        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1848
1849    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1850        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1851
1852    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1853        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1854        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1855        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1856        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1857        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1858        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1859        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1860        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1861        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1862        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1863        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1864        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1865        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1866
1867    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1868        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1869
1870    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1871        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1872        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1873        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1874        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1875
1876    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1878        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1879        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1880        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1881
1882    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1883        return ".".join(
1884            self.sql(part)
1885            for part in (
1886                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1887                expression.args.get("db"),
1888                expression.args.get("this"),
1889            )
1890            if part is not None
1891        )
1892
1893    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1894        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1895        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1896        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1897        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1898        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1899        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1900        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1901        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1902
1903        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1904        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1905            sample_pre_alias = sample
1906            sample_post_alias = ""
1907        else:
1908            sample_pre_alias = ""
1909            sample_post_alias = sample
1910
1911        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1912        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1913        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1914        joins = self.indent(
1915            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1916        )
1917        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1918
1919        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1920        if file_format:
1921            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1922            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1923            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1924
1925        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1926        if ordinality:
1927            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1928            alias = ""
1929
1930        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1931        if when:
1932            table = f"{table} {when}"
1933
1934        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1935        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1936
1937        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1938        if rows_from:
1939            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1940
1941        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1942
1943    def tablesample_sql(
1944        self,
1945        expression: exp.TableSample,
1946        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1947    ) -> str:
1948        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1949        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1950        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1951        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1952        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1953        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1954        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1955        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1956        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1957
1958        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1959        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1960            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1961
1962        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1963        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1964            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1965
1966        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1967        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1968            expr = f"({expr})"
1969
1970        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1971
1972    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1973        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1974
1975        if expression.this:
1976            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1977            if not expressions:
1978                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1979
1980            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1981            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1982            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1983            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1984            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1985
1986        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1987        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1988        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1989
1990        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1991
1992        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1993        if include_nulls is not None:
1994            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1995        else:
1996            nulls = ""
1997
1998        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1999        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2000        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
2001
2002    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2003        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2004        kind = expression.text("kind")
2005        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2006        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2007
2008    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2009        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2010
2011    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2013        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2014        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2015        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2016        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2017        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2018        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2019        if self.RETURNING_END:
2020            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2021        else:
2022            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2023        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2024        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2025
2026    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2027        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2028
2029        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2030        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2031            args = self.expressions(expression)
2032            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2033            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2034            values = (
2035                f"({values})"
2036                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2037                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2038                else values
2039            )
2040            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2041
2042        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2043        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2044        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2045
2046        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2047
2048        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2049            row = tup.expressions
2050
2051            if i == 0 and column_names:
2052                row = [
2053                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2054                ]
2055
2056            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2057
2058        if self.pretty:
2059            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2060            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2061            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2062            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2063            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2064
2065        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2066        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2067        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2068
2069    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2070        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2071
2072    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2073    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2074        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2075        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2076        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2077
2078    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2079        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2080
2081    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2082        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2083        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2084
2085    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2086        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2087        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2088
2089    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2090        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2091        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2092
2093    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2094        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2095        if group_by_all is True:
2096            modifier = " ALL"
2097        elif group_by_all is False:
2098            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2099        else:
2100            modifier = ""
2101
2102        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2103
2104        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2105        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2106        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2107
2108        groupings = csv(
2109            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2110            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2111            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2112            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2113            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2114        )
2115
2116        if (
2117            expression.expressions
2118            and groupings
2119            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2120        ):
2121            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2122
2123        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2124
2125    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2126        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2127        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2128
2129    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2130        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2131        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2132        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2133        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2134        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2135        return start + connect
2136
2137    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2138        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2139
2140    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2141        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2142            side = None
2143        else:
2144            side = expression.side
2145
2146        op_sql = " ".join(
2147            op
2148            for op in (
2149                expression.method,
2150                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2151                side,
2152                expression.kind,
2153                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2154            )
2155            if op
2156        )
2157        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2158        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2159        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2160        using = expression.args.get("using")
2161
2162        if not on_sql and using:
2163            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2164
2165        this = expression.this
2166        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2167
2168        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2169        if exprs:
2170            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2171
2172        if on_sql:
2173            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2174            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2175            if using:
2176                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2177            else:
2178                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2179        elif not op_sql:
2180            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2181                return f" {this_sql}"
2182
2183            return f", {this_sql}"
2184
2185        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2186            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2187
2188        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2189
2190    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2191        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2192        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2193        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2194
2195    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2196        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2197
2198        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2199        if cross_apply is True:
2200            op = "INNER JOIN "
2201        elif cross_apply is False:
2202            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2203        else:
2204            op = ""
2205
2206        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2207
2208    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2210
2211        if expression.args.get("view"):
2212            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2213            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2214            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2215            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2216            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2217            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2218
2219        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2220        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2221        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2222
2223    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2225
2226        args = [
2227            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2228            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2229            if e
2230        ]
2231
2232        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2233        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2234        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2235        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2236
2237        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2238
2239    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2241        value = expression.expression
2242        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2243        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2244        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2245        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2246
2247    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2248        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2249        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2251        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2252        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2253        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2254        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2255        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2256
2257    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2258        expressions = (
2259            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2260        )
2261        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2262        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2263
2264    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2265        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2266
2267    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2268        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2269            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2270            return ""
2271
2272        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2273        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2274        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2275        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2276
2277        if wait is not None:
2278            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2279                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2280            else:
2281                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2282
2283        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2284
2285    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2286        text = expression.this or ""
2287        if expression.is_string:
2288            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2289        return text
2290
2291    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2292        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2293            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2294            text = "".join(
2295                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2296            )
2297
2298        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2299            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2300        )
2301
2302    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2303        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2304        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2305        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2306        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2307        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2308        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2309        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2310        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2311        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2312        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2313        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2314
2315    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2316        return "NULL"
2317
2318    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2319        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2320
2321    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2323        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2324        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2325        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2326
2327    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2328        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2329        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2330        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2331        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2332        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2333        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2334        interpolated_values = [
2335            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2336            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2337            else self.sql(e, "this")
2338            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2339        ]
2340        interpolate = (
2341            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2342        )
2343        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2344
2345    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2346        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2347
2348    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2349        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2350
2351    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2352        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2353
2354    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2355        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2356        asc = not desc
2357
2358        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2359        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2360        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2361        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2362        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2363
2364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2365
2366        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2367        nulls_sort_change = ""
2368        if nulls_first and (
2369            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2370        ):
2371            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2372        elif (
2373            nulls_last
2374            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2375            and not nulls_are_last
2376        ):
2377            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2378
2379        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2380        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2381            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2382            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2383                self.unsupported(
2384                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2385                )
2386                nulls_sort_change = ""
2387            elif (
2388                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2389                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2390                and (
2391                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2392                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2393                )
2394            ):
2395                self.unsupported(
2396                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2397                )
2398                nulls_sort_change = ""
2399            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2400                if expression.this.is_int:
2401                    self.unsupported(
2402                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2403                    )
2404                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2405                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2406                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2407                nulls_sort_change = ""
2408
2409        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2410        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2411
2412        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2413
2414    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2415        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2416        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2417
2418        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2419
2420        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2421
2422    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2423        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2424        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2425        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2426        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2427        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2428        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2429        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2430        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2431        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2432        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2433        definition_sqls = [
2434            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2435            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2436        ]
2437        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2438        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2439        body = "".join(
2440            (
2441                partition,
2442                order,
2443                measures,
2444                rows,
2445                after,
2446                pattern,
2447                define,
2448            )
2449        )
2450        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2451        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2452        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2453
2454    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2455        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2456
2457        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2458            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2459        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2460            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2461
2462        return csv(
2463            *sqls,
2464            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2465            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2466            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2467            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2468            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2469            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2470            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2471            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2472            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2473            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2474            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2475            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2476            self.options_modifier(expression),
2477            sep="",
2478        )
2479
2480    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2481        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2482        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2483
2484    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2485        return ""
2486
2487    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2488        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2489    ) -> t.List[str]:
2490        return [
2491            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2492            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2493        ]
2494
2495    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2496        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2497        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2498        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2499
2500    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2501        into = expression.args.get("into")
2502        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2503            into.pop()
2504
2505        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2506        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2507        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2508        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2509
2510        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2511        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2512            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2513            limit.pop()
2514        else:
2515            top = ""
2516
2517        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2518
2519        if kind:
2520            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2521                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2522            else:
2523                if kind == "STRUCT":
2524                    expressions = self.expressions(
2525                        sqls=[
2526                            self.sql(
2527                                exp.Struct(
2528                                    expressions=[
2529                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2530                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2531                                        else e
2532                                        for e in expression.expressions
2533                                    ]
2534                                )
2535                            )
2536                        ]
2537                    )
2538                kind = ""
2539
2540        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2541        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2542
2543        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2544        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2545        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2546        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2547        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2548            expression,
2549            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2550            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2551            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2552        )
2553
2554        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2555        if expression.args.get("with"):
2556            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2557            expression.pop_comments()
2558
2559        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2560
2561        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2562            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2563                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2564            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2565                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2566            else:
2567                table_kind = ""
2568            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2569
2570        return sql
2571
2572    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2574        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2575        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2576
2577    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2578        if expression.expressions:
2579            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2580        return ""
2581
2582    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2583        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2584        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2585        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2586        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2587        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2588        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2589        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2590
2591    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2592        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2593        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2594
2595    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2597        kind = expression.text("kind")
2598        if kind:
2599            kind = f"{kind}."
2600        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2601
2602    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2603        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2604
2605    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2606        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2607        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2608        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2609        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2610            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2611
2612            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2613            expression.set("sample", None)
2614
2615        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2616        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2617        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2618
2619    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2620        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2621        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2622
2623    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2624        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2625
2626        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2627        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2628
2629        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2630            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2631                alias.append("columns", offset)
2632
2633        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2634            columns = alias.columns
2635            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2636        else:
2637            alias = self.sql(alias)
2638
2639        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2640        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2641            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2642        else:
2643            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2644                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2645            elif offset:
2646                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2647            else:
2648                suffix = alias
2649
2650        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2651
2652    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2653        return ""
2654
2655    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2656        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2657        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2658
2659    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2660        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2661        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2662        order = expression.args.get("order")
2663        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2664        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2665        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2666        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2667
2668        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2669
2670        first = expression.args.get("first")
2671        if first is None:
2672            first = ""
2673        else:
2674            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2675
2676        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2677            return f"{this} {alias}"
2678
2679        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2680        return f"{this} ({args})"
2681
2682    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2683        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2684        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2685
2686    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2687        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2688        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2689        end = (
2690            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2691            or "CURRENT ROW"
2692        )
2693        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2694
2695    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2697        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2698        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2699
2700    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2702        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2703        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2704        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2705
2706    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2707        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2708    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2709        return apply_index_offset(
2710            expression.this,
2711            expression.expressions,
2712            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2713        )
2714
2715    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2716        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2717        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2718        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2719
2720    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2721        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2722
2723    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2725        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2726            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2727                this = self.wrap(this)
2728            return f"ANY{this}"
2729        return f"ANY {this}"
2730
2731    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2732        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2733
2734    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2736        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2737
2738        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2739            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2740            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2741
2742        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2743
2744        if default:
2745            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2746
2747        statements.append("END")
2748
2749        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2750            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2751
2752        return " ".join(statements)
2753
2754    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2756        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2757        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2758
2759    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2760        order = expression.args.get("order")
2761        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2762        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2763
2764    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2765        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2766        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2767        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2768
2769    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2770        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2771
2772        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2773            func_name = "LTRIM"
2774        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2775            func_name = "RTRIM"
2776        else:
2777            func_name = "TRIM"
2778
2779        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2780
2781    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2782        args = expression.expressions
2783        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2784            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2785
2786        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2787            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2788
2789        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2790            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2791
2792        return args
2793
2794    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2795        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2796
2797        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2798        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2799            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2800
2801        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2802
2803    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2804        return self.func(
2805            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2806        )
2807
2808    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2809        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2810        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2811
2812    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2813        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2814        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2815        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2816        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2817        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2818        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2819        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2820        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2821
2822    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2823        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2824        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2825        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2826        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2827
2828    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2829        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2830
2831    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2832        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2833        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2834        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2835
2836    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2837        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2838
2839    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2840        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2841
2842        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2843            path = self.escape_str(path)
2844
2845        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2846            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2847
2848        return path
2849
2850    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2851        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2852            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2853            if not callable(transform):
2854                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2855                return ""
2856
2857            return transform(self, expression)
2858
2859        if isinstance(expression, int):
2860            return str(expression)
2861
2862        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2863            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2864            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2865        else:
2866            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2867            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2868
2869        return escaped
2870
2871    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2872        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2873
2874    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2875        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2876        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2877
2878        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2879        if unique_keys is not None:
2880            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2881        else:
2882            unique_keys = ""
2883
2884        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2885        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2886        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2887        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2888
2889        return self.func(
2890            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2891            *expression.expressions,
2892            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2893        )
2894
2895    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2896        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2897
2898    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2899        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2900        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2901        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2902        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2903        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2904        return self.func(
2905            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2906        )
2907
2908    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2910        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2911        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2912        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2913        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2914        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2915        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2916        return self.func(
2917            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2918            this,
2919            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2920        )
2921
2922    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2923        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2924        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2925        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2926
2927        if nested_schema:
2928            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2929
2930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2931        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2932        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2933        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2934
2935    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2936        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2937
2938    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2941        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2942        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2943        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2944        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2945        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2946        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2947        return self.func(
2948            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2949        )
2950
2951    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2953        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2954        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2955        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2956        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2957        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2958
2959    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2961        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2962        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2963        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2964        with_ = (
2965            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2966            if expressions
2967            else ""
2968        )
2969        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2970
2971    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2972        query = expression.args.get("query")
2973        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2974        field = expression.args.get("field")
2975        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2976
2977        if query:
2978            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2979        elif unnest:
2980            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2981        elif field:
2982            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2983        else:
2984            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2985
2986        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2987
2988    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2989        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2990
2991    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2992        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2993        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2994            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2995        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2996
2997        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2998            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2999            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3000
3001        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3002        if this:
3003            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3004            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3005
3006        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3007
3008    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3009        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3010
3011    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3013        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3014        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3015        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3016        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3017        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3018
3019    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3020        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3021        parent = expression.parent
3022        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3023        return self.func(
3024            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3025        )
3026
3027    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3028        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3029        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3030
3031    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3032        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3033        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3034        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3035        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3036
3037    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3038        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3039
3040    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3041        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3042        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3043        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3044
3045    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3046        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3047
3048        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3049        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3050
3051        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3052            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3053        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3054            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3055
3056        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3057
3058    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3059        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3060
3061    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3063        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3064        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3065
3066    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3067        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3068        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3069        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3070
3071    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3073        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3074        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3075
3076    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3077        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3078
3079    def and_sql(
3080        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3081    ) -> str:
3082        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3083
3084    def or_sql(
3085        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3086    ) -> str:
3087        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3088
3089    def xor_sql(
3090        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3091    ) -> str:
3092        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3093
3094    def connector_sql(
3095        self,
3096        expression: exp.Connector,
3097        op: str,
3098        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3099    ) -> str:
3100        if stack is not None:
3101            if expression.expressions:
3102                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3103            else:
3104                stack.append(expression.right)
3105                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3106                    for comment in expression.comments:
3107                        if comment:
3108                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3109                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3110            return op
3111
3112        stack = [expression]
3113        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3114        ops = set()
3115
3116        while stack:
3117            node = stack.pop()
3118            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3119                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3120            else:
3121                sql = self.sql(node)
3122                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3123                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3124                else:
3125                    sqls.append(sql)
3126
3127        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3128        return sep.join(sqls)
3129
3130    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3131        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3132
3133    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3134        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3135
3136    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3137        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3138
3139    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3140        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3141
3142    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3143        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3144
3145    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3146        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3147
3148    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3149        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3150        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3151        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3152        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3153        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3154        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3155        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3156
3157    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3158        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3159        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3160
3161    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3162        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3163            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3164        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3165
3166    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3167        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3168
3169    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3171        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3172        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3173        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3174        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3175        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3176
3177    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3179        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3180        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3181        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3182        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3183        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3184        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3185        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3186        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3187
3188    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3189        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3190        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3191        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3192        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3193
3194        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3195            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3196
3197        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3198
3199    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3200        return "BEGIN"
3201
3202    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3203        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3204        if chain is not None:
3205            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3206
3207        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3208
3209    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3210        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3211        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3212        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3213
3214    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3216
3217        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3218        if dtype:
3219            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3220            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3221            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3222            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3223            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3224
3225        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3226        if default:
3227            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3228
3229        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3230        if comment:
3231            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3232
3233        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3234        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3235
3236        if not drop and not allow_null:
3237            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3238
3239        if allow_null is not None:
3240            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3241            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3242
3243        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3244
3245    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3246        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3247        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3248            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3249        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3250
3251    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3252        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3254        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3255        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3256        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3257
3258    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3259        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3260            # Remove db from tables
3261            expression = expression.transform(
3262                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3263            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3265        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3266
3267    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3268        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3269        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3270        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3271        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3272
3273    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3274        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3275        return f"SET {exprs}"
3276
3277    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3278        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3279
3280        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3281            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3282        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3283            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3284        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3285            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3286        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3287            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3288        else:
3289            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3290
3291        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3292        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3293        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3294        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3295        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3296        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3297        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3298        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3299
3300        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3301
3302    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3303        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3304            return self.expressions(
3305                expression,
3306                key="actions",
3307                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3308                skip_first=True,
3309            )
3310        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3311
3312    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3313        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3314        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3315        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3316
3317    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3318        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3319
3320    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3321        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3322
3323        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3324            case = exp.case()
3325            for arg in expression.expressions:
3326                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3327            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3328
3329        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3330
3331        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3332        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3333        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3334
3335    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3336        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3337
3338    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3339        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3340
3341    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3342        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3343        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3344        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3345        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3346
3347    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3348        return self.sql(
3349            exp.Cast(
3350                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3351                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3352            )
3353        )
3354
3355    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3356        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3357            return self.func(
3358                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3359            )
3360        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3361
3362    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3363        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3364
3365        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3366            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3367
3368        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3369            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3370                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3371
3372        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3373            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3374                return self.sql(
3375                    exp.cast(
3376                        l / r,
3377                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3378                    )
3379                )
3380
3381        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3382
3383    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3384        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3385
3386    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3387        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3388
3389    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3390        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3391
3392    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3393        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3394
3395    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3396        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3397
3398    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3399        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3400
3401    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3402        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3403
3404    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3405        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3406
3407    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3408        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3409
3410    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3411        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3412
3413    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3414        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3415
3416    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3417        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3418            return self.sql(
3419                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3420            )
3421        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3422
3423    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3424        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3425
3426    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3427        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3428
3429    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3430        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3431
3432    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3433        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3434
3435    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3436        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3437
3438    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3439        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3440
3441    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3442        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3443
3444    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3445        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3446
3447    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3448        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3449
3450    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3451        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3452
3453    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3454        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3455
3456    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3457        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3458
3459    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3460        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3461
3462    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3463        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3464            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3465            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3466
3467        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3468
3469    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3470        this = expression.this
3471        expr = expression.expression
3472
3473        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3474            this, expr = expr, this
3475        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3476            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3477                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3478
3479            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3480
3481        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3482
3483    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3484        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3485        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3487        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3488        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3489
3490    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3491        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3492        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3493        binary_type = type(expression)
3494
3495        while stack:
3496            node = stack.pop()
3497
3498            if type(node) is binary_type:
3499                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3500                if op_func:
3501                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3502
3503                stack.append(node.right)
3504                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3505                stack.append(node.left)
3506            else:
3507                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3508
3509        return "".join(sqls)
3510
3511    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3512        args = []
3513
3514        for key in expression.arg_types:
3515            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3516
3517            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3518                for value in arg_value:
3519                    args.append(value)
3520            elif arg_value is not None:
3521                args.append(arg_value)
3522
3523        if self.normalize_functions:
3524            name = expression.sql_name()
3525        else:
3526            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3527
3528        return self.func(name, *args)
3529
3530    def func(
3531        self,
3532        name: str,
3533        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3534        prefix: str = "(",
3535        suffix: str = ")",
3536        normalize: bool = True,
3537    ) -> str:
3538        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3539        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3540
3541    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3542        arg_sqls = tuple(
3543            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3544        )
3545        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3546            return self.indent(
3547                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3548            )
3549        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3550
3551    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3552        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3553
3554    def format_time(
3555        self,
3556        expression: exp.Expression,
3557        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3558        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3559    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3560        return format_time(
3561            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3562            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3563            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3564        )
3565
3566    def expressions(
3567        self,
3568        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3569        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3570        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3571        flat: bool = False,
3572        indent: bool = True,
3573        skip_first: bool = False,
3574        skip_last: bool = False,
3575        sep: str = ", ",
3576        prefix: str = "",
3577        dynamic: bool = False,
3578        new_line: bool = False,
3579    ) -> str:
3580        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3581
3582        if not expressions:
3583            return ""
3584
3585        if flat:
3586            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3587
3588        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3589        result_sqls = []
3590
3591        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3592            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3593            if not sql:
3594                continue
3595
3596            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3597
3598            if self.pretty:
3599                if self.leading_comma:
3600                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3601                else:
3602                    result_sqls.append(
3603                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3604                    )
3605            else:
3606                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3607
3608        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3609            if new_line:
3610                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3611                result_sqls.append("")
3612            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3613        else:
3614            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3615
3616        return (
3617            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3618            if indent
3619            else result_sql
3620        )
3621
3622    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3623        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3624        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3625        if flat:
3626            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3627        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3628
3629    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3630        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3631        if not property_name:
3632            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3633        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3634
3635    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3636        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3637
3638    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3639        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3640
3641    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3643        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3644        expressions = (
3645            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3646        )
3647        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3648
3649    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3651        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3652        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3653
3654    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3655        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3656
3657    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3658        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3659        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3660        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3661        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3662
3663        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3664        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3665            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3666            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3667            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3668            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3669        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3670            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3671                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3672            else:
3673                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3674        else:
3675            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3676        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3677
3678    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3679        table = expression.this
3680        table_alias = ""
3681
3682        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3683        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3684            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3685            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3686
3687        this = self.sql(table)
3688        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3689        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3690        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3691        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3692        if returning:
3693            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3694
3695        sep = self.sep()
3696
3697        return self.prepend_ctes(
3698            expression,
3699            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3700        )
3701
3702    @unsupported_args("format")
3703    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3704        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3705
3706    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3707        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3708            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3709            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3710
3711        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3712        if not fmt:
3713            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3714            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3715
3716        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3717
3718    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3720        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3721        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3722        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3723        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3724
3725    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3727        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3728        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3729        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3730
3731    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3732        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3733
3734    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3735        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3736
3737    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3738    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3739        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3740        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3741        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3742        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3743        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3744        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3745        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3746
3747    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3748        return ""
3749
3750    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3751        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3752        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3753        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3754        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3755        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3756
3757    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3759        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3760
3761        if having:
3762            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3763
3764        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3765
3766    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3767        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3768        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3769        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3770        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3771        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3772        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3773        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3774        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3775        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3776        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3777        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3778        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3779        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3780
3781    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3782        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3783        if key_block_size:
3784            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3785
3786        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3787        if using:
3788            return f"USING {using}"
3789
3790        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3791        if parser:
3792            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3793
3794        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3795        if comment:
3796            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3797
3798        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3799        if visible is not None:
3800            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3801
3802        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3803        if engine_attr:
3804            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3805
3806        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3807        if secondary_engine_attr:
3808            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3809
3810        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3811        return ""
3812
3813    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3814        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3815        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3816
3817    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3818        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3819        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3821        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3822        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3823        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3824        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3825        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3826        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3827        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3828        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3829
3830    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3831        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3832            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3833
3834        case = exp.Case().when(
3835            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3836            expression.args["true"],
3837            copy=False,
3838        )
3839        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3840        if else_cond:
3841            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3842
3843        return self.sql(case)
3844
3845    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3847        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3848        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3849        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3850        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3851        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3852
3853    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3854        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3855
3856    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3857        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3858
3859    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3860        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3861        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3862        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3863        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3864        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3865        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3866
3867    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3869        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3870        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3871
3872    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3874        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3875        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3876
3877    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3878        arg = expression.this
3879        if not arg.type:
3880            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3881
3882            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3883
3884        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3885            return self.sql(arg)
3886
3887        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3888        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3889
3890    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3891        this = expression.this
3892        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3893            return self.sql(this)
3894
3895        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3896
3897    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3898        this = expression.this
3899        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3900            return self.sql(this)
3901
3902        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
3903
3904    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3905        this = expression.this
3906        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
3907            return self.sql(this)
3908
3909        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
3910
3911    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3912        this = expression.this
3913        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3914
3915        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3916            return self.sql(
3917                exp.cast(
3918                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3919                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3920                )
3921            )
3922
3923        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3924            return self.sql(this)
3925
3926        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3927
3928    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3929        return self.sql(
3930            exp.func(
3931                "DATEDIFF",
3932                expression.this,
3933                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3934                "day",
3935            )
3936        )
3937
3938    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3939        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3940            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3941
3942        unit = expression.text("unit")
3943        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3944            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3945
3946        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3947
3948    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3949        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3950
3951        return self.func(
3952            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3953        )
3954
3955    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3956        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3957            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3958            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3959            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3960            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3961
3962        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3963
3964        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3965        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3966            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3967
3968        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3969
3970    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3971        expression.set(
3972            "expressions",
3973            [
3974                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3975                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3976                else e
3977                for e in expression.expressions
3978            ],
3979        )
3980
3981        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3982
3983    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3984        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3985        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3986
3987        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3988
3989    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3990        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3991        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3992
3993        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3994
3995        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3996        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3997
3998        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3999        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4000
4001        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4002        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4003
4004        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4005        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4006
4007        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4008
4009    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4010    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4011    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4012        to = expression.this
4013        value = expression.expression
4014        style = expression.args.get("style")
4015        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4016        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4017
4018        if not to or not value:
4019            return ""
4020
4021        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4022        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4023            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4024
4025        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4026        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4027
4028        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4029        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4030            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4031
4032            style_value = style.name
4033            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4034            if not converted_style:
4035                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4036
4037            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4038
4039            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4040                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4041            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4042                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4043            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4044                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4045            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4046                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4047
4048        if not transformed:
4049            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4050
4051        return self.sql(transformed)
4052
4053    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4054        this = expression.this
4055        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4056            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4057            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4058
4059        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4060            return f".{this}"
4061
4062        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4063        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4064
4065    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4066        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4067        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4068
4069    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4070        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4071            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4072
4073            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4074
4075        return expression
4076
4077    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4078        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4079            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4080            mods = sorted(
4081                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4082                key=lambda x: 0
4083                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4084                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4085            )
4086
4087            if mods:
4088                mod = mods[0]
4089                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4090                this.meta["inline"] = True
4091                mod.this.replace(this)
4092                return self.sql(expression.this)
4093
4094            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4095
4096            if agg_func:
4097                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4098
4099        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4100
4101    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4102        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4103        if self.pretty:
4104            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4105        return string
4106
4107    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4108        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4109
4110        if expression.expressions:
4111            upper = option.upper()
4112
4113            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4114            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4115
4116            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4117            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4118            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4119            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4120
4121        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4122
4123        if not value:
4124            return option
4125
4126        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4127
4128        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4129
4130    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4131        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4132        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4133            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4134            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4135            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4136        else:
4137            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4138            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4139            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4140
4141        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4142        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4143
4144        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4145        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4146
4147        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4148        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4149
4150        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4151        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4152
4153        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4154
4155    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4156        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4157        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4158
4159        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4160        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4161        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4162        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4163
4164        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4165        params = self.expressions(
4166            expression,
4167            key="params",
4168            sep=sep,
4169            new_line=True,
4170            skip_last=True,
4171            skip_first=True,
4172            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4173        )
4174
4175        if params:
4176            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4177                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4178            elif not self.pretty:
4179                params = f" {params}"
4180
4181        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4182
4183    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4184        return ""
4185
4186    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4187        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4188        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4189        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4190        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4191        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4192
4193        if filter_col or retention_period:
4194            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4195
4196        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4197
4198    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4199        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4200    ) -> str:
4201        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4202        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4203        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4204        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4205
4206    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4208        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4209        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4210
4211    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4212        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4213
4214    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4216        expr = expression.expression
4217
4218        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4219            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4220            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4221        else:
4222            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4223
4224        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4225
4226    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4227        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4228            return self.sql(expression.this)
4229
4230        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4231
4232    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4233        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4234        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4235
4236        if lower and upper:
4237            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4238        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4239
4240    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4241        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4242        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4243        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4244        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4245        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4246        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4247
4248        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4249
4250    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4251        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4252
4253        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4254        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4255            fill_pattern = "' '"
4256
4257        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4258
4259    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4260        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4261        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4262
4263    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4264        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4265
4266        parent = expression.parent
4267        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4268            parent = parent.parent
4269
4270        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4271            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4272
4273        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4274            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4275
4276        return self.sql(generate_series)
4277
4278    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4279        exprs = expression.expressions
4280        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4281            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4282        else:
4283            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4284
4285        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4286
4287    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4288        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4289            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4290
4291        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4292        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4293        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4294
4295        if source_tz and timestamp:
4296            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4297                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4298            )
4299
4300        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4301
4302        return self.sql(expr)
4303
4304    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4305        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4306        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4307
4308        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4309
4310        if _with is None:
4311            with_sql = ""
4312        elif not _with:
4313            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4314        else:
4315            with_sql = " WITH"
4316
4317        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4318
4319        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4320
4321    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4322        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4323            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4324
4325        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4326        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4327        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4328
4329        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4330        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4331
4332        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4333
4334    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4335        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4336        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4337        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4338        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4339        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4340
4341    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4342        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4343        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4344        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4345        return res
4346
4347    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4348        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4349        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4350        empty = (
4351            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4352            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4353            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4354        )
4355
4356        error = expression.args.get("error")
4357        error = (
4358            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4359            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4360            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4361        )
4362
4363        if error and empty:
4364            error = (
4365                f"{empty} {error}"
4366                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4367                else f"{error} {empty}"
4368            )
4369            empty = ""
4370
4371        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4372
4373        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4374
4375    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4377        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4378
4379        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4380        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4381
4382        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4383        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4384
4385        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4386
4387        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4388
4389    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4390        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4391
4392        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4393        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4394        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4395            parent = expression.parent
4396            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4397                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4398                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4399            else:
4400                this = expression.this
4401                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4402                if this.find(exp.Column):
4403                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4404                    this_sql = (
4405                        self.expressions(this)
4406                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4407                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4408                    )
4409
4410                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4411
4412        return array_agg
4413
4414    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4416        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4417
4418        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4419
4420    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4421        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4422
4423        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4424        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4425
4426        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4427        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4428
4429        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4430
4431        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4432
4433        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4434
4435    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4437        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4438        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4439
4440        return f"{this}{columns}"
4441
4442    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4444
4445        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4446        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4447
4448        return f"{kind}{this}"
4449
4450    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4451        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4452        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4453            func = f"*{func}"
4454
4455        return func
4456
4457    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4459        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4460        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4461        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4462        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4463
4464        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4465
4466    @unsupported_args("format")
4467    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4468        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4469
4470    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4471        this = expression.this
4472        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4473
4474        if zone:
4475            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4476            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4477            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4478            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4479                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4480            )
4481
4482        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4483
4484    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4485        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4486            return self.sql(
4487                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4488            )
4489
4490        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4491
4492    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4493        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4494        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4495        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4496        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4497
4498    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4499        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4500            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4501
4502        start_ts = exp.cast(
4503            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4504        )
4505
4506        return self.sql(
4507            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4508        )
4509
4510    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4511        dim = expression.expression
4512
4513        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4514        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4515            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4516                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4517            dim = None
4518
4519        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4520        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4521            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4522
4523        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
659    def __init__(
660        self,
661        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
662        identify: str | bool = False,
663        normalize: bool = False,
664        pad: int = 2,
665        indent: int = 2,
666        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
667        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
668        max_unsupported: int = 3,
669        leading_comma: bool = False,
670        max_text_width: int = 80,
671        comments: bool = True,
672        dialect: DialectType = None,
673    ):
674        import sqlglot
675        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
676
677        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
678        self.identify = identify
679        self.normalize = normalize
680        self.pad = pad
681        self._indent = indent
682        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
683        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
684        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
685        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
686        self.comments = comments
687        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
688
689        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
690        self.normalize_functions = (
691            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
692        )
693
694        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
695        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
696            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
697        )
698        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
699
700        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
701
702        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
703        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayContainsAll'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayOverlaps'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Int64'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SwapTable'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = 'ARRAY_LENGTH'
ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: Optional[bool] = None
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
705    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
706        """
707        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
708
709        Args:
710            expression: The syntax tree.
711            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
712                it is safer to copy.
713
714        Returns:
715            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
716        """
717        if copy:
718            expression = expression.copy()
719
720        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
721
722        self.unsupported_messages = []
723        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
724
725        if self.pretty:
726            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
727
728        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
729            return sql
730
731        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
732            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
733                logger.warning(msg)
734        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
735            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
736
737        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
739    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
740        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
741        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
742
743        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
744            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
745
746            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
747
748        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
761    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
762        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
763            raise UnsupportedError(message)
764        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
766    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
767        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
769    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
770        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
772    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
773        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
774        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
775        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
777    def maybe_comment(
778        self,
779        sql: str,
780        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
781        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
782        separated: bool = False,
783    ) -> str:
784        comments = (
785            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
786            if self.comments
787            else None
788        )
789
790        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
791            return sql
792
793        comments_sql = " ".join(
794            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
795        )
796
797        if not comments_sql:
798            return sql
799
800        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
801
802        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
803            return (
804                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
805                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
806                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
807            )
808
809        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
811    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
812        this_sql = (
813            self.sql(expression)
814            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
815            else self.sql(expression, "this")
816        )
817        if not this_sql:
818            return "()"
819
820        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
821        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
823    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
824        original = self.identify
825        self.identify = False
826        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
827        self.identify = original
828        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
830    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
831        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
832            return name.upper()
833        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
834            return name.lower()
835        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
837    def indent(
838        self,
839        sql: str,
840        level: int = 0,
841        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
842        skip_first: bool = False,
843        skip_last: bool = False,
844    ) -> str:
845        if not self.pretty or not sql:
846            return sql
847
848        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
849        lines = sql.split("\n")
850
851        return "\n".join(
852            (
853                line
854                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
855                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
856            )
857            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
858        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
860    def sql(
861        self,
862        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
863        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
864        comment: bool = True,
865    ) -> str:
866        if not expression:
867            return ""
868
869        if isinstance(expression, str):
870            return expression
871
872        if key:
873            value = expression.args.get(key)
874            if value:
875                return self.sql(value)
876            return ""
877
878        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
879
880        if callable(transform):
881            sql = transform(self, expression)
882        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
883            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
884
885            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
886                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
887            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
888                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
889            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
890                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
891            else:
892                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
893        else:
894            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
895
896        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
898    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
899        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
900        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
901        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
903    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
904        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
905        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
906        options = expression.args.get("options")
907        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
908        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
909        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
910        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
911        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
913    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
914        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
915            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
916        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
917        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
919    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
920        return ".".join(
921            self.sql(part)
922            for part in (
923                expression.args.get("catalog"),
924                expression.args.get("db"),
925                expression.args.get("table"),
926                expression.args.get("this"),
927            )
928            if part
929        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
931    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
932        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
933
934        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
935            join_mark = ""
936            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
937
938        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
940    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
942        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
943        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
944        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
946    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
947        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
948        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
949        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
950        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
951        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
952        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
953        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
954        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
955
956        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
957            kind = ""
958
959        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
961    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
963        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
964        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
966    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
968        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
969            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
970        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
971            persisted = " PERSISTED"
972        else:
973            persisted = ""
974        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
976    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
977        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
979    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
980        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
981            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
982        else:
983            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
984
985        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
 987    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 988        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 989    ) -> str:
 990        this = ""
 991        if expression.this is not None:
 992            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 993            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 994
 995        start = expression.args.get("start")
 996        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 997        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 998        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 999        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1000        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1001        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1002        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1003        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1004        cycle_sql = ""
1005
1006        if cycle is not None:
1007            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1008            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1009
1010        sequence_opts = ""
1011        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1012            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1013            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1014
1015        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1016        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1017
1018        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
1020    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1021        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1022    ) -> str:
1023        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1024        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1025        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
1027    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1028        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1029    ) -> str:
1030        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1032    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1033        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1035    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1036        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1038    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1039        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1040        if desc is not None:
1041            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1042        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1044    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1046        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1047        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1048        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1049        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1050        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1051        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1052        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
1054    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1055        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
1057    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1058        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1059        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1060        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1061        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1062
1063        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1064
1065        properties_sql = ""
1066        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1067            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1068        ):
1069            properties_sql = self.sql(
1070                exp.Properties(
1071                    expressions=[
1072                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1073                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1074                    ]
1075                )
1076            )
1077
1078            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1079                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1080            elif not self.pretty:
1081                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1082                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1083
1084        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1085        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1086
1087        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1088        if expression_sql:
1089            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1090
1091            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1092                postalias_props_sql = ""
1093                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1094                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1095                        exp.Properties(
1096                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1097                        ),
1098                        wrapped=False,
1099                    )
1100                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1101                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1102
1103        postindex_props_sql = ""
1104        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1105            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1106                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1107                wrapped=False,
1108                prefix=" ",
1109            )
1110
1111        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1112        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1113        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1114
1115        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1116        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1117        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1118
1119        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1120        if clustered is None:
1121            clustered_sql = ""
1122        elif clustered:
1123            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1124        else:
1125            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1126
1127        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1128        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1129            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1130                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1131                sep=" ",
1132                prefix=" ",
1133                wrapped=False,
1134            )
1135
1136        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1137
1138        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1139        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1140            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1141                exp.Properties(
1142                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1143                ),
1144                sep=" ",
1145                prefix=" ",
1146                wrapped=False,
1147            )
1148
1149        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1150        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1151        no_schema_binding = (
1152            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1153        )
1154
1155        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1156        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1157
1158        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1159        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1161    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1162        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1163        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1164        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1165        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1166        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1167        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1168        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1169        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1170        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1171        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1172
1173        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1174        if cache is None:
1175            cache_str = ""
1176        elif cache is True:
1177            cache_str = " CACHE"
1178        else:
1179            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1180
1181        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1182        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1183
1184        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1186    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1188        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1189        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1190        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1192    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1193        style = expression.args.get("style")
1194        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1195        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1196        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1197        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1199    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1200        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1201        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1203    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1204        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1205        if with_:
1206            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1207        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1209    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1210        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1211        recursive = (
1212            "RECURSIVE "
1213            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1214            else ""
1215        )
1216
1217        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1219    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1220        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1221        if alias:
1222            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1223
1224        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1225
1226        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1227        if materialized is False:
1228            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1229        elif materialized:
1230            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1231
1232        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1234    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1235        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1236        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1237        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1238
1239        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1240            columns = ""
1241            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1242
1243        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1244            alias = self._next_name()
1245
1246        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1248    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1250        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1251            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1252        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1254    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1256        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1257            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1258        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1260    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1262        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1263            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1264        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1266    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1267        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1268        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1269
1270        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1271            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1272            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1273        else:
1274            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1275            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1276
1277        if escape:
1278            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1279            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1280        else:
1281            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1282            escape_sql = ""
1283
1284        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1285            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1286
1287        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1289    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1290        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1291        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1293    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1295        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1296        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1297        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1299    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1300        nested = ""
1301        values = ""
1302        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1303
1304        type_value = expression.this
1305        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1306            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1307        else:
1308            type_sql = (
1309                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1310                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1311                else type_value
1312            )
1313
1314        if interior:
1315            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1316                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1317                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1318                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1319                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1320                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1321            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1322                nested = f" {interior}"
1323            else:
1324                nested = f"({interior})"
1325
1326        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1327        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1328            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1329            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1330        ):
1331            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1332
1333        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1335    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1336        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1337        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1338        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1339        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1341    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1343        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1344        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1345        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1346        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1347        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1348        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1349        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1350        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1351        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1352        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1353        if self.RETURNING_END:
1354            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1355        else:
1356            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1357        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1359    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1361        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1362        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1363        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1364        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1365        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1366        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1367        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1368        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1369        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1370        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1371        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1372        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1373        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1374        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1376    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1377        op_type = type(expression)
1378        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1379
1380        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1381        if (
1382            distinct is False
1383            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1384            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1385        ):
1386            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1387
1388        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1389
1390        if distinct is None:
1391            distinct = default_distinct
1392            if distinct is None:
1393                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1394
1395        if distinct is default_distinct:
1396            kind = ""
1397        else:
1398            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1399
1400        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1401        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1403    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1404        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1405            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1406            order = expression.args.get("order")
1407
1408            if limit or order:
1409                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1410                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1411                )
1412
1413                if limit:
1414                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1415                if order:
1416                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1417                return self.sql(select)
1418
1419        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1420        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1421
1422        while stack:
1423            node = stack.pop()
1424
1425            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1426                stack.append(node.expression)
1427                stack.append(
1428                    self.maybe_comment(
1429                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1430                    )
1431                )
1432                stack.append(node.this)
1433            else:
1434                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1435
1436        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1437        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1438        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1440    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1441        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1442        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1443        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1444        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1445        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1446            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1447        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1448        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1450    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1451        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1452            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1453            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1454            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1455
1456        agg = expression.this
1457        agg_arg = agg.this
1458        cond = expression.expression.this
1459        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1460        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1462    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1463        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1464            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1465            return ""
1466
1467        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1469    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1470        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1471        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1472        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1473        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1474        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1475        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1476        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1477        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1478        if include:
1479            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1480        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1481        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1482        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1483        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1484        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1485        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1486
1487        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1489    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1490        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1491        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1492        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1493        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1494        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1495        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1496        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1497
1498        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1499
1500        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1501        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1503    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1504        text = expression.name
1505        lower = text.lower()
1506        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1507        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1508        if (
1509            expression.quoted
1510            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1511            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1512            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1513        ):
1514            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1515        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1517    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1518        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1519        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1520            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1521
1522        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1524    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1525        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1526        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1527            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1528        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1530    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1531        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1532        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1533        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1534        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1535        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1537    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1538        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1539        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1541    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1542        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1544    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1545        root_properties = []
1546        with_properties = []
1547
1548        for p in expression.expressions:
1549            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1550            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1551                with_properties.append(p)
1552            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1553                root_properties.append(p)
1554
1555        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1556        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1557
1558        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1559            with_props = " " + with_props
1560
1561        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1563    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1564        if properties.expressions:
1565            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1566        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1568    def properties(
1569        self,
1570        properties: exp.Properties,
1571        prefix: str = "",
1572        sep: str = ", ",
1573        suffix: str = "",
1574        wrapped: bool = True,
1575    ) -> str:
1576        if properties.expressions:
1577            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1578            if expressions:
1579                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1580                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1581        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1583    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1584        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1586    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1587        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1588        for p in properties.expressions:
1589            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1590            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1591                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1592            else:
1593                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1594
1595        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1597    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1598        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1599            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1600        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1602    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1603        property_cls = expression.__class__
1604        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1605            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1606
1607        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1608        if not property_name:
1609            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1610
1611        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1613    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1614        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1615            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1616            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1617
1618            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1619            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1620                like = f"({like})"
1621
1622            return like
1623
1624        if expression.expressions:
1625            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1626
1627        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1628        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1630    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1631        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1632        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1633        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1635    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1636        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1637        local = expression.args.get("local")
1638        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1639        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1640        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1641        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1642        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1644    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1645        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1646        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1647        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1649    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1650        if expression.args.get("default"):
1651            property = "DEFAULT"
1652        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1653            property = "ON"
1654        else:
1655            property = "OFF"
1656        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1658    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1659        if expression.args.get("no"):
1660            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1661        if expression.args.get("default"):
1662            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1663
1664        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1665        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1667    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1668        default = expression.args.get("default")
1669        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1670        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1671        if default or minimum or maximum:
1672            if default:
1673                prop = "DEFAULT"
1674            elif minimum:
1675                prop = "MINIMUM"
1676            else:
1677                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1678            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1679        units = expression.args.get("units")
1680        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1681        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1683    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1684        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1685        always = expression.args.get("always")
1686        default = expression.args.get("default")
1687        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1688        never = expression.args.get("never")
1689
1690        if autotemp is not None:
1691            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1692        elif always:
1693            prop = "ALWAYS"
1694        elif default:
1695            prop = "DEFAULT"
1696        elif manual:
1697            prop = "MANUAL"
1698        elif never:
1699            prop = "NEVER"
1700        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1702    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1703        no = expression.args.get("no")
1704        no = " NO" if no else ""
1705        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1706        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1707        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1708        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1709        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1711    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1712        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1713            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1714        if expression.this:
1715            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1716            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1717            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1718
1719        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1720        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1721        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1723    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1725
1726        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1727        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1728            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1729        else:
1730            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1731
1732        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1734    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1735        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1736        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1737        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1738        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1739        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1740        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1741        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1743    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1744        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1745        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1746        statistics_sql = ""
1747        if statistics is not None:
1748            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1749        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1751    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1752        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1753        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1754        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1755        data_consistency = (
1756            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1757        )
1758        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1759        retention_period = (
1760            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1761        )
1762
1763        if this:
1764            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1765        else:
1766            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1767
1768        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1769
1770        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1772    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1773        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1774        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1775
1776        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1777            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1778        else:
1779            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1780
1781        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1782        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1783        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1784        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1785        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1786        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1787        if is_function:
1788            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1789        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1790
1791        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1792        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1793        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1794        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1795        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1796        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1797        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1798        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1799
1800        if self.RETURNING_END:
1801            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1802        else:
1803            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1804
1805        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1806        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1807        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1808        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1809
1810        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1811        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1812
1813        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1814        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1816    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1817        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1819    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1820        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1821        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1823        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1824        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1826    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1827        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1829    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1830        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1832    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1833        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1834
1835        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1836        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1837
1838        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1839        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1840        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1841
1842        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1843        if expressions:
1844            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1845            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1846
1847        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1849    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1850        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1852    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1853        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1854        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1855        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1856        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1857        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1858        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1859        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1860        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1861        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1862        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1863        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1864        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1865        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1867    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1868        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1870    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1871        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1872        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1873        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1874        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1876    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1878        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1879        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1880        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1882    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1883        return ".".join(
1884            self.sql(part)
1885            for part in (
1886                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1887                expression.args.get("db"),
1888                expression.args.get("this"),
1889            )
1890            if part is not None
1891        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1893    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1894        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1895        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1896        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1897        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1898        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1899        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1900        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1901        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1902
1903        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1904        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1905            sample_pre_alias = sample
1906            sample_post_alias = ""
1907        else:
1908            sample_pre_alias = ""
1909            sample_post_alias = sample
1910
1911        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1912        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1913        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1914        joins = self.indent(
1915            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1916        )
1917        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1918
1919        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1920        if file_format:
1921            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1922            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1923            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1924
1925        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1926        if ordinality:
1927            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1928            alias = ""
1929
1930        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1931        if when:
1932            table = f"{table} {when}"
1933
1934        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1935        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1936
1937        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1938        if rows_from:
1939            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1940
1941        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1943    def tablesample_sql(
1944        self,
1945        expression: exp.TableSample,
1946        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1947    ) -> str:
1948        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1949        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1950        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1951        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1952        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1953        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1954        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1955        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1956        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1957
1958        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1959        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1960            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1961
1962        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1963        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1964            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1965
1966        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1967        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1968            expr = f"({expr})"
1969
1970        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1972    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1973        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1974
1975        if expression.this:
1976            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1977            if not expressions:
1978                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1979
1980            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1981            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1982            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1983            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1984            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1985
1986        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1987        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1988        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1989
1990        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1991
1992        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1993        if include_nulls is not None:
1994            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1995        else:
1996            nulls = ""
1997
1998        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1999        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2000        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
2002    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2003        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2004        kind = expression.text("kind")
2005        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2006        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
2008    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2009        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
2011    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2013        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2014        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2015        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2016        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2017        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2018        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2019        if self.RETURNING_END:
2020            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2021        else:
2022            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2023        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2024        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2026    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2027        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2028
2029        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2030        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2031            args = self.expressions(expression)
2032            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2033            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2034            values = (
2035                f"({values})"
2036                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2037                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2038                else values
2039            )
2040            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2041
2042        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2043        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2044        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2045
2046        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2047
2048        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2049            row = tup.expressions
2050
2051            if i == 0 and column_names:
2052                row = [
2053                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2054                ]
2055
2056            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2057
2058        if self.pretty:
2059            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2060            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2061            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2062            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2063            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2064
2065        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2066        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2067        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
2069    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2070        return self.sql(expression, "this")
@unsupported_args('expressions')
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
2072    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2073    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2074        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2075        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2076        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
2078    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2079        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str:
2081    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2082        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2083        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str:
2085    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2086        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2087        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str:
2089    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2090        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2091        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
2093    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2094        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2095        if group_by_all is True:
2096            modifier = " ALL"
2097        elif group_by_all is False:
2098            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2099        else:
2100            modifier = ""
2101
2102        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2103
2104        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2105        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2106        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2107
2108        groupings = csv(
2109            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2110            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2111            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2112            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2113            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2114        )
2115
2116        if (
2117            expression.expressions
2118            and groupings
2119            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2120        ):
2121            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2122
2123        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
2125    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2126        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2127        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
2129    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2130        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2131        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2132        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2133        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2134        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2135        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2137    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2138        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2140    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2141        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2142            side = None
2143        else:
2144            side = expression.side
2145
2146        op_sql = " ".join(
2147            op
2148            for op in (
2149                expression.method,
2150                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2151                side,
2152                expression.kind,
2153                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2154            )
2155            if op
2156        )
2157        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2158        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2159        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2160        using = expression.args.get("using")
2161
2162        if not on_sql and using:
2163            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2164
2165        this = expression.this
2166        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2167
2168        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2169        if exprs:
2170            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2171
2172        if on_sql:
2173            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2174            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2175            if using:
2176                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2177            else:
2178                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2179        elif not op_sql:
2180            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2181                return f" {this_sql}"
2182
2183            return f", {this_sql}"
2184
2185        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2186            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2187
2188        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2190    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2191        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2192        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2193        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2195    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2196        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2197
2198        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2199        if cross_apply is True:
2200            op = "INNER JOIN "
2201        elif cross_apply is False:
2202            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2203        else:
2204            op = ""
2205
2206        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2208    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2210
2211        if expression.args.get("view"):
2212            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2213            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2214            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2215            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2216            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2217            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2218
2219        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2220        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2221        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2223    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2225
2226        args = [
2227            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2228            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2229            if e
2230        ]
2231
2232        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2233        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2234        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2235        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2236
2237        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2239    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2241        value = expression.expression
2242        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2243        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2244        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2245        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2247    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2248        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2249        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2251        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2252        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2253        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2254        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2255        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2257    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2258        expressions = (
2259            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2260        )
2261        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2262        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2264    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2265        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2267    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2268        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2269            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2270            return ""
2271
2272        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2273        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2274        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2275        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2276
2277        if wait is not None:
2278            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2279                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2280            else:
2281                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2282
2283        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2285    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2286        text = expression.this or ""
2287        if expression.is_string:
2288            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2289        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2291    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2292        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2293            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2294            text = "".join(
2295                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2296            )
2297
2298        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2299            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2300        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2302    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2303        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2304        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2305        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2306        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2307        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2308        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2309        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2310        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2311        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2312        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2313        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2315    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2316        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2318    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2319        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2321    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2323        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2324        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2325        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2327    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2328        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2329        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2330        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2331        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2332        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2333        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2334        interpolated_values = [
2335            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2336            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2337            else self.sql(e, "this")
2338            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2339        ]
2340        interpolate = (
2341            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2342        )
2343        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2345    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2346        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2348    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2349        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2351    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2352        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2354    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2355        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2356        asc = not desc
2357
2358        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2359        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2360        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2361        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2362        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2363
2364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2365
2366        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2367        nulls_sort_change = ""
2368        if nulls_first and (
2369            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2370        ):
2371            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2372        elif (
2373            nulls_last
2374            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2375            and not nulls_are_last
2376        ):
2377            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2378
2379        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2380        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2381            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2382            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2383                self.unsupported(
2384                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2385                )
2386                nulls_sort_change = ""
2387            elif (
2388                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2389                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2390                and (
2391                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2392                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2393                )
2394            ):
2395                self.unsupported(
2396                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2397                )
2398                nulls_sort_change = ""
2399            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2400                if expression.this.is_int:
2401                    self.unsupported(
2402                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2403                    )
2404                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2405                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2406                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2407                nulls_sort_change = ""
2408
2409        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2410        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2411
2412        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2414    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2415        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2416        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2417
2418        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2419
2420        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2422    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2423        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2424        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2425        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2426        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2427        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2428        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2429        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2430        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2431        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2432        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2433        definition_sqls = [
2434            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2435            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2436        ]
2437        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2438        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2439        body = "".join(
2440            (
2441                partition,
2442                order,
2443                measures,
2444                rows,
2445                after,
2446                pattern,
2447                define,
2448            )
2449        )
2450        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2451        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2452        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2454    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2455        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2456
2457        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2458            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2459        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2460            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2461
2462        return csv(
2463            *sqls,
2464            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2465            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2466            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2467            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2468            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2469            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2470            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2471            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2472            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2473            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2474            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2475            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2476            self.options_modifier(expression),
2477            sep="",
2478        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2480    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2481        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2482        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2484    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2485        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2487    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2488        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2489    ) -> t.List[str]:
2490        return [
2491            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2492            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2493        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2495    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2496        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2497        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2498        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2500    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2501        into = expression.args.get("into")
2502        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2503            into.pop()
2504
2505        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2506        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2507        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2508        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2509
2510        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2511        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2512            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2513            limit.pop()
2514        else:
2515            top = ""
2516
2517        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2518
2519        if kind:
2520            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2521                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2522            else:
2523                if kind == "STRUCT":
2524                    expressions = self.expressions(
2525                        sqls=[
2526                            self.sql(
2527                                exp.Struct(
2528                                    expressions=[
2529                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2530                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2531                                        else e
2532                                        for e in expression.expressions
2533                                    ]
2534                                )
2535                            )
2536                        ]
2537                    )
2538                kind = ""
2539
2540        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2541        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2542
2543        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2544        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2545        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2546        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2547        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2548            expression,
2549            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2550            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2551            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2552        )
2553
2554        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2555        if expression.args.get("with"):
2556            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2557            expression.pop_comments()
2558
2559        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2560
2561        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2562            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2563                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2564            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2565                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2566            else:
2567                table_kind = ""
2568            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2569
2570        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2572    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2574        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2575        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2577    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2578        if expression.expressions:
2579            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2580        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2582    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2583        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2584        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2585        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2586        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2587        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2588        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2589        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2591    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2592        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2593        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2595    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2597        kind = expression.text("kind")
2598        if kind:
2599            kind = f"{kind}."
2600        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2602    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2603        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2605    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2606        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2607        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2608        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2609        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2610            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2611
2612            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2613            expression.set("sample", None)
2614
2615        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2616        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2617        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2619    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2620        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2621        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2623    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2624        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2625
2626        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2627        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2628
2629        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2630            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2631                alias.append("columns", offset)
2632
2633        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2634            columns = alias.columns
2635            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2636        else:
2637            alias = self.sql(alias)
2638
2639        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2640        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2641            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2642        else:
2643            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2644                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2645            elif offset:
2646                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2647            else:
2648                suffix = alias
2649
2650        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2652    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2653        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2655    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2656        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2657        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2659    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2660        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2661        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2662        order = expression.args.get("order")
2663        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2664        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2665        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2666        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2667
2668        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2669
2670        first = expression.args.get("first")
2671        if first is None:
2672            first = ""
2673        else:
2674            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2675
2676        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2677            return f"{this} {alias}"
2678
2679        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2680        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2682    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2683        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2684        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2686    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2687        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2688        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2689        end = (
2690            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2691            or "CURRENT ROW"
2692        )
2693        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2695    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2697        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2698        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2700    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2702        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2703        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2704        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket, index_offset: Optional[int] = None) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2706    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2707        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2708    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2709        return apply_index_offset(
2710            expression.this,
2711            expression.expressions,
2712            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2713        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2715    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2716        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2717        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2718        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2720    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2721        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2723    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2725        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2726            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2727                this = self.wrap(this)
2728            return f"ANY{this}"
2729        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2731    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2732        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2734    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2736        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2737
2738        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2739            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2740            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2741
2742        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2743
2744        if default:
2745            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2746
2747        statements.append("END")
2748
2749        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2750            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2751
2752        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2754    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2756        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2757        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2759    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2760        order = expression.args.get("order")
2761        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2762        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2764    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2765        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2766        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2767        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2769    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2770        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2771
2772        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2773            func_name = "LTRIM"
2774        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2775            func_name = "RTRIM"
2776        else:
2777            func_name = "TRIM"
2778
2779        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2781    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2782        args = expression.expressions
2783        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2784            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2785
2786        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2787            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2788
2789        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2790            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2791
2792        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2794    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2795        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2796
2797        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2798        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2799            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2800
2801        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2803    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2804        return self.func(
2805            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2806        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2808    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2809        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2810        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2812    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2813        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2814        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2815        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2816        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2817        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2818        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2819        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2820        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2822    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2823        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2824        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2825        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2826        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2828    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2829        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2831    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2832        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2833        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2834        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2836    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2837        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2839    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2840        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2841
2842        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2843            path = self.escape_str(path)
2844
2845        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2846            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2847
2848        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2850    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2851        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2852            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2853            if not callable(transform):
2854                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2855                return ""
2856
2857            return transform(self, expression)
2858
2859        if isinstance(expression, int):
2860            return str(expression)
2861
2862        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2863            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2864            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2865        else:
2866            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2867            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2868
2869        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2871    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2872        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2874    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2875        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2876        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2877
2878        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2879        if unique_keys is not None:
2880            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2881        else:
2882            unique_keys = ""
2883
2884        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2885        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2886        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2887        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2888
2889        return self.func(
2890            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2891            *expression.expressions,
2892            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2893        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2895    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2896        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2898    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2899        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2900        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2901        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2902        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2903        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2904        return self.func(
2905            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2906        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2908    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2910        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2911        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2912        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2913        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2914        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2915        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2916        return self.func(
2917            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2918            this,
2919            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2920        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2922    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2923        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2924        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2925        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2926
2927        if nested_schema:
2928            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2929
2930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2931        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2932        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2933        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2935    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2936        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2938    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2941        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2942        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2943        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2944        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2945        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2946        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2947        return self.func(
2948            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2949        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2951    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2953        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2954        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2955        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2956        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2957        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2959    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2961        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2962        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2963        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2964        with_ = (
2965            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2966            if expressions
2967            else ""
2968        )
2969        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2971    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2972        query = expression.args.get("query")
2973        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2974        field = expression.args.get("field")
2975        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2976
2977        if query:
2978            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2979        elif unnest:
2980            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2981        elif field:
2982            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2983        else:
2984            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2985
2986        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2988    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2989        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2991    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2992        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2993        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2994            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2995        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2996
2997        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2998            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2999            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3000
3001        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3002        if this:
3003            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3004            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3005
3006        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
3008    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3009        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
3011    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3013        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3014        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3015        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3016        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3017        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
3019    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3020        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3021        parent = expression.parent
3022        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3023        return self.func(
3024            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3025        )
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
3027    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3028        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3029        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
3031    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3032        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3033        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3034        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3035        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
3037    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3038        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
3040    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3041        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3042        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3043        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
3045    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3046        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3047
3048        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3049        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3050
3051        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3052            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3053        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3054            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3055
3056        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
3058    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3059        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3061    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3063        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3064        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3066    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3067        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3068        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3069        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3071    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3073        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3074        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
3076    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3077        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3079    def and_sql(
3080        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3081    ) -> str:
3082        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3084    def or_sql(
3085        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3086    ) -> str:
3087        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3089    def xor_sql(
3090        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3091    ) -> str:
3092        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3094    def connector_sql(
3095        self,
3096        expression: exp.Connector,
3097        op: str,
3098        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3099    ) -> str:
3100        if stack is not None:
3101            if expression.expressions:
3102                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3103            else:
3104                stack.append(expression.right)
3105                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3106                    for comment in expression.comments:
3107                        if comment:
3108                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3109                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3110            return op
3111
3112        stack = [expression]
3113        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3114        ops = set()
3115
3116        while stack:
3117            node = stack.pop()
3118            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3119                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3120            else:
3121                sql = self.sql(node)
3122                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3123                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3124                else:
3125                    sqls.append(sql)
3126
3127        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3128        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3130    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3131        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3133    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3134        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3136    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3137        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3139    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3140        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3142    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3143        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3145    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3146        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3148    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3149        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3150        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3151        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3152        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3153        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3154        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3155        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3157    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3158        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3159        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3161    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3162        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3163            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3164        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3166    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3167        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3169    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3171        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3172        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3173        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3174        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3175        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3177    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3179        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3180        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3181        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3182        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3183        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3184        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3185        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3186        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3188    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3189        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3190        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3191        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3192        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3193
3194        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3195            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3196
3197        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3199    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3200        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3202    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3203        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3204        if chain is not None:
3205            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3206
3207        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3209    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3210        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3211        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3212        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3214    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3216
3217        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3218        if dtype:
3219            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3220            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3221            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3222            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3223            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3224
3225        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3226        if default:
3227            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3228
3229        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3230        if comment:
3231            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3232
3233        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3234        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3235
3236        if not drop and not allow_null:
3237            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3238
3239        if allow_null is not None:
3240            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3241            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3242
3243        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3245    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3246        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3247        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3248            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3249        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3251    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3252        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3254        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3255        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3256        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def alterrename_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterRename) -> str:
3258    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3259        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3260            # Remove db from tables
3261            expression = expression.transform(
3262                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3263            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3265        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3267    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3268        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3269        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3270        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3271        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3273    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3274        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3275        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3277    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3278        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3279
3280        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3281            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3282        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3283            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3284        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3285            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3286        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3287            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3288        else:
3289            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3290
3291        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3292        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3293        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3294        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3295        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3296        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3297        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3298        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3299
3300        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3302    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3303        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3304            return self.expressions(
3305                expression,
3306                key="actions",
3307                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3308                skip_first=True,
3309            )
3310        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3312    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3313        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3314        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3315        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3317    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3318        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3320    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3321        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3322
3323        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3324            case = exp.case()
3325            for arg in expression.expressions:
3326                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3327            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3328
3329        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3330
3331        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3332        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3333        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3335    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3336        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3338    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3339        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3341    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3342        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3343        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3344        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3345        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3347    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3348        return self.sql(
3349            exp.Cast(
3350                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3351                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3352            )
3353        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3355    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3356        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3357            return self.func(
3358                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3359            )
3360        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3362    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3363        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3364
3365        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3366            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3367
3368        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3369            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3370                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3371
3372        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3373            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3374                return self.sql(
3375                    exp.cast(
3376                        l / r,
3377                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3378                    )
3379                )
3380
3381        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3383    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3384        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3386    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3387        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3389    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3390        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3392    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3393        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3395    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3396        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3398    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3399        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3401    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3402        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3404    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3405        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3407    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3408        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3410    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3411        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3413    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3414        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3416    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3417        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3418            return self.sql(
3419                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3420            )
3421        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3423    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3424        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3426    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3427        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3429    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3430        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3432    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3433        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3435    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3436        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3438    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3439        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3441    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3442        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3444    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3445        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3447    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3448        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3450    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3451        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3453    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3454        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3456    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3457        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3459    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3460        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3462    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3463        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3464            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3465            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3466
3467        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3469    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3470        this = expression.this
3471        expr = expression.expression
3472
3473        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3474            this, expr = expr, this
3475        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3476            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3477                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3478
3479            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3480
3481        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3483    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3484        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3485        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3487        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3488        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3490    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3491        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3492        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3493        binary_type = type(expression)
3494
3495        while stack:
3496            node = stack.pop()
3497
3498            if type(node) is binary_type:
3499                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3500                if op_func:
3501                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3502
3503                stack.append(node.right)
3504                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3505                stack.append(node.left)
3506            else:
3507                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3508
3509        return "".join(sqls)
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3511    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3512        args = []
3513
3514        for key in expression.arg_types:
3515            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3516
3517            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3518                for value in arg_value:
3519                    args.append(value)
3520            elif arg_value is not None:
3521                args.append(arg_value)
3522
3523        if self.normalize_functions:
3524            name = expression.sql_name()
3525        else:
3526            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3527
3528        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str:
3530    def func(
3531        self,
3532        name: str,
3533        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3534        prefix: str = "(",
3535        suffix: str = ")",
3536        normalize: bool = True,
3537    ) -> str:
3538        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3539        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args( self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], sep: str = ', ') -> str:
3541    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3542        arg_sqls = tuple(
3543            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3544        )
3545        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3546            return self.indent(
3547                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3548            )
3549        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3551    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3552        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3554    def format_time(
3555        self,
3556        expression: exp.Expression,
3557        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3558        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3559    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3560        return format_time(
3561            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3562            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3563            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3564        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3566    def expressions(
3567        self,
3568        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3569        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3570        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3571        flat: bool = False,
3572        indent: bool = True,
3573        skip_first: bool = False,
3574        skip_last: bool = False,
3575        sep: str = ", ",
3576        prefix: str = "",
3577        dynamic: bool = False,
3578        new_line: bool = False,
3579    ) -> str:
3580        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3581
3582        if not expressions:
3583            return ""
3584
3585        if flat:
3586            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3587
3588        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3589        result_sqls = []
3590
3591        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3592            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3593            if not sql:
3594                continue
3595
3596            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3597
3598            if self.pretty:
3599                if self.leading_comma:
3600                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3601                else:
3602                    result_sqls.append(
3603                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3604                    )
3605            else:
3606                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3607
3608        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3609            if new_line:
3610                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3611                result_sqls.append("")
3612            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3613        else:
3614            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3615
3616        return (
3617            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3618            if indent
3619            else result_sql
3620        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3622    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3623        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3624        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3625        if flat:
3626            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3627        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3629    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3630        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3631        if not property_name:
3632            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3633        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3635    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3636        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3638    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3639        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3641    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3643        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3644        expressions = (
3645            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3646        )
3647        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3649    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3651        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3652        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3654    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3655        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3657    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3658        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3659        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3660        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3661        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3662
3663        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3664        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3665            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3666            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3667            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3668            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3669        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3670            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3671                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3672            else:
3673                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3674        else:
3675            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3676        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3678    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3679        table = expression.this
3680        table_alias = ""
3681
3682        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3683        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3684            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3685            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3686
3687        this = self.sql(table)
3688        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3689        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3690        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3691        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3692        if returning:
3693            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3694
3695        sep = self.sep()
3696
3697        return self.prepend_ctes(
3698            expression,
3699            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3700        )
@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3702    @unsupported_args("format")
3703    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3704        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3706    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3707        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3708            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3709            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3710
3711        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3712        if not fmt:
3713            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3714            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3715
3716        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3718    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3720        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3721        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3722        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3723        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3725    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3727        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3728        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3729        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3731    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3732        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3734    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3735        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3738    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3739        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3740        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3741        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3742        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3743        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3744        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3745        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3747    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3748        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3750    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3751        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3752        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3753        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3754        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3755        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3757    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3759        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3760
3761        if having:
3762            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3763
3764        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3766    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3767        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3768        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3769        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3770        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3771        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3772        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3773        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3774        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3775        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3776        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3777        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3778        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3779        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3781    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3782        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3783        if key_block_size:
3784            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3785
3786        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3787        if using:
3788            return f"USING {using}"
3789
3790        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3791        if parser:
3792            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3793
3794        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3795        if comment:
3796            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3797
3798        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3799        if visible is not None:
3800            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3801
3802        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3803        if engine_attr:
3804            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3805
3806        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3807        if secondary_engine_attr:
3808            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3809
3810        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3811        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3813    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3814        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3815        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3817    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3818        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3819        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3821        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3822        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3823        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3824        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3825        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3826        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3827        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3828        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3830    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3831        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3832            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3833
3834        case = exp.Case().when(
3835            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3836            expression.args["true"],
3837            copy=False,
3838        )
3839        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3840        if else_cond:
3841            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3842
3843        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3845    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3847        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3848        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3849        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3850        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3851        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3853    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3854        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3856    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3857        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3859    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3860        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3861        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3862        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3863        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3864        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3865        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3867    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3869        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3870        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3872    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3874        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3875        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3877    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3878        arg = expression.this
3879        if not arg.type:
3880            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3881
3882            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3883
3884        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3885            return self.sql(arg)
3886
3887        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3888        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3890    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3891        this = expression.this
3892        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3893            return self.sql(this)
3894
3895        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3897    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3898        this = expression.this
3899        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3900            return self.sql(this)
3901
3902        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3904    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3905        this = expression.this
3906        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
3907            return self.sql(this)
3908
3909        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3911    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3912        this = expression.this
3913        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3914
3915        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3916            return self.sql(
3917                exp.cast(
3918                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3919                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3920                )
3921            )
3922
3923        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3924            return self.sql(this)
3925
3926        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3928    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3929        return self.sql(
3930            exp.func(
3931                "DATEDIFF",
3932                expression.this,
3933                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3934                "day",
3935            )
3936        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3938    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3939        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3940            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3941
3942        unit = expression.text("unit")
3943        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3944            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3945
3946        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3948    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3949        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3950
3951        return self.func(
3952            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3953        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3955    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3956        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3957            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3958            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3959            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3960            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3961
3962        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3963
3964        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3965        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3966            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3967
3968        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3970    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3971        expression.set(
3972            "expressions",
3973            [
3974                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3975                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3976                else e
3977                for e in expression.expressions
3978            ],
3979        )
3980
3981        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3983    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3984        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3985        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3986
3987        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3989    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3990        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3991        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3992
3993        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3994
3995        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3996        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3997
3998        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3999        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4000
4001        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4002        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4003
4004        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4005        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4006
4007        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
4011    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4012        to = expression.this
4013        value = expression.expression
4014        style = expression.args.get("style")
4015        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4016        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4017
4018        if not to or not value:
4019            return ""
4020
4021        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4022        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4023            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4024
4025        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4026        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4027
4028        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4029        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4030            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4031
4032            style_value = style.name
4033            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4034            if not converted_style:
4035                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4036
4037            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4038
4039            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4040                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4041            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4042                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4043            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4044                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4045            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4046                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4047
4048        if not transformed:
4049            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4050
4051        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
4107    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4108        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4109
4110        if expression.expressions:
4111            upper = option.upper()
4112
4113            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4114            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4115
4116            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4117            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4118            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4119            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4120
4121        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4122
4123        if not value:
4124            return option
4125
4126        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4127
4128        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
4130    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4131        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4132        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4133            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4134            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4135            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4136        else:
4137            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4138            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4139            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4140
4141        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4142        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4143
4144        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4145        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4146
4147        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4148        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4149
4150        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4151        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4152
4153        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
4155    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4156        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4157        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4158
4159        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4160        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4161        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4162        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4163
4164        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4165        params = self.expressions(
4166            expression,
4167            key="params",
4168            sep=sep,
4169            new_line=True,
4170            skip_last=True,
4171            skip_first=True,
4172            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4173        )
4174
4175        if params:
4176            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4177                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4178            elif not self.pretty:
4179                params = f" {params}"
4180
4181        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4183    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4184        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4186    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4187        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4188        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4189        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4190        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4191        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4192
4193        if filter_col or retention_period:
4194            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4195
4196        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4198    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4199        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4200    ) -> str:
4201        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4202        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4203        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4204        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4206    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4208        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4209        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4211    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4212        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4214    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4216        expr = expression.expression
4217
4218        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4219            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4220            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4221        else:
4222            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4223
4224        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4226    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4227        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4228            return self.sql(expression.this)
4229
4230        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4232    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4233        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4234        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4235
4236        if lower and upper:
4237            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4238        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4240    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4241        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4242        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4243        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4244        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4245        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4246        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4247
4248        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4250    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4251        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4252
4253        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4254        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4255            fill_pattern = "' '"
4256
4257        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4259    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4260        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4261        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4263    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4264        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4265
4266        parent = expression.parent
4267        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4268            parent = parent.parent
4269
4270        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4271            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4272
4273        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4274            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4275
4276        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4278    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4279        exprs = expression.expressions
4280        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4281            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4282        else:
4283            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4284
4285        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4287    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4288        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4289            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4290
4291        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4292        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4293        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4294
4295        if source_tz and timestamp:
4296            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4297                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4298            )
4299
4300        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4301
4302        return self.sql(expr)
def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str:
4304    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4305        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4306        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4307
4308        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4309
4310        if _with is None:
4311            with_sql = ""
4312        elif not _with:
4313            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4314        else:
4315            with_sql = " WITH"
4316
4317        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4318
4319        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str:
4321    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4322        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4323            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4324
4325        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4326        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4327        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4328
4329        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4330        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4331
4332        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4334    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4335        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4336        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4337        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4338        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4339        return f"{condition}{insert}"
def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4341    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4342        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4343        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4344        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4345        return res
def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition) -> str:
4347    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4348        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4349        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4350        empty = (
4351            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4352            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4353            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4354        )
4355
4356        error = expression.args.get("error")
4357        error = (
4358            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4359            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4360            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4361        )
4362
4363        if error and empty:
4364            error = (
4365                f"{empty} {error}"
4366                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4367                else f"{error} {empty}"
4368            )
4369            empty = ""
4370
4371        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4372
4373        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists) -> str:
4375    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4377        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4378
4379        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4380        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4381
4382        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4383        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4384
4385        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4386
4387        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4389    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4390        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4391
4392        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4393        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4394        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4395            parent = expression.parent
4396            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4397                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4398                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4399            else:
4400                this = expression.this
4401                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4402                if this.find(exp.Column):
4403                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4404                    this_sql = (
4405                        self.expressions(this)
4406                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4407                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4408                    )
4409
4410                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4411
4412        return array_agg
def apply_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Apply) -> str:
4414    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4416        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4417
4418        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
def grant_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Grant) -> str:
4420    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4421        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4422
4423        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4424        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4425
4426        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4427        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4428
4429        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4430
4431        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4432
4433        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrivilege):
4435    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4437        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4438        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4439
4440        return f"{this}{columns}"
def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrincipal):
4442    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4444
4445        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4446        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4447
4448        return f"{kind}{this}"
def columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Columns):
4450    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4451        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4452        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4453            func = f"*{func}"
4454
4455        return func
def overlay_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlay):
4457    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4459        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4460        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4461        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4462        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4463
4464        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
@unsupported_args('format')
def todouble_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToDouble) -> str:
4466    @unsupported_args("format")
4467    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4468        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
def string_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.String) -> str:
4470    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4471        this = expression.this
4472        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4473
4474        if zone:
4475            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4476            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4477            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4478            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4479                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4480            )
4481
4482        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
def median_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Median):
4484    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4485        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4486            return self.sql(
4487                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4488            )
4489
4490        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4492    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4493        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4494        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4495        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4496        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4498    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4499        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4500            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4501
4502        start_ts = exp.cast(
4503            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4504        )
4505
4506        return self.sql(
4507            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4508        )
def arraysize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArraySize) -> str:
4510    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4511        dim = expression.expression
4512
4513        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4514        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4515            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4516                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4517            dim = None
4518
4519        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4520        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4521            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4522
4523        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)